The Philosophy of Freedom
The Theory of Freedom
GA 4a
I. The Goal of Knowledge
I believe I am indicating correctly one of the fundamental characteristics of our age when I say that, at the present day, all human interests tend to centre in the cult of human individuality. An energetic effort is being made to shake off every kind of authority. Nothing is accepted as valid, unless it springs from the roots of individuality. Everything which hinders the individual in the full development of his powers is thrust aside. The saying “Each one of us must choose his hero in whose footsteps he toils up to Olympus” no longer holds for us. We allow no ideals to be forced upon us. We are convinced that in each of us, if only we probe deep enough into the very heart of our being, there dwells something noble, something worthy of development. We no longer believe that there is a norm of human life to which we must all strive to conform. We regard the perfection of the whole as depending on the unique perfection of each single individual. We do not want to do what anyone else can do equally well. No, our contribution to the development of the world, however trifling, must be something which, by reason of the uniqueness of our nature, we alone can offer. Never have artists been less concerned about rules and norms in art than today. Each of them asserts his right to express, in the creations of his art, what is unique in him. There are dramatists who write in dialect rather than conform to the standard diction which grammar demands.
No better expression for these phenomena can be found than this, that they result from the individual's striving towards freedom, developed to its highest pitch. We do not want to be dependent in any respect, and where dependence must be, we tolerate it only on condition that it coincides with a vital interest of our individuality.
[ 2 ] Truth, too, will be sought in an age such as ours only in the depths of human nature. Of the following two well-known paths described by Schiller, it is the second which will today be found most useful:
Wahrheit suchen wir beide, du aussen im Leben, ich innen
In dem Herzen, und so findet sie jeder gewiss.
Ist das Auge gesund, so begegnet es aussen dem Schöpfer;
Ist es das Herz, dann gewiss spiegelt es innen die Welt.
A truth which comes to us from without bears ever the stamp of uncertainty. Conviction attaches only to what appears as truth to each of us in our own hearts.
[ 3 ] Truth alone can give us confidence in developing our powers. He who is tortured by doubts finds his powers lamed. In a world of riddle of which baffles him, he can find no aim for his activity.
[ 4 ] We no longer want to believe; we want to know. Belief demands the acceptance of truths which we do not wholly comprehend. But the individuality which seeks to experience everything in the depths of its own being, is repelled by what it cannot understand. Only that knowledge will satisfy us which springs from the inner life of the personality, and submits itself to no external norm.
Truth seek we both—Thou in the life without thee and around;
I in the heart within. By both can Truth alike be found.
The healthy eye can through the world the great creator track;
The healthy heart is but the glass which gives creation back.—Bulwer
[ 5 ] Again, we do not want any knowledge that has encased itself once and for all in hide bound formulas, and which is preserved in Encyclopædias valid for all time. Each of us claims the right to start from the facts that lie nearest to hand, from his own immediate experiences, and thence to ascend to a knowledge of the whole universe. We strive after certainty in knowledge, but each in his own way.
[ 6 ] Our scientific doctrines, too, are no longer to be formulated as if we were unconditionally compelled to accept them. None of us would wish to give a scientific work a title like Fichte's A Pellucid Account for the General Public concerning the Real Nature of the Newest Philosophy. An Attempt to Compel the Readers to Understand. Nowadays there is no attempt to compel anyone to understand. We claim no agreement with anyone whom a distinct individual need does not drive to a certain view. We do not seek nowadays to cram facts of knowledge even into the immature human being, the child. We seek rather to develop his faculties in such a way that his understanding may depend no longer on our compulsion, but on his will.
[ 7 ] I am under no illusion concerning the characteristics of the present age. I know how many flaunt a manner of life which lacks all individuality and follows only the prevailing fashion. But I know also that many of my contemporaries strive to order their lives in the direction of the principles I have indicated. To them I would dedicate this book. It does not pretend to offer the “only possible” way to Truth, it only describes the path chosen by one whose heart is set upon Truth.
[ 8 ] The reader will be led at first into somewhat abstract regions, where thought must draw sharp outlines if it is to reach secure conclusions. But he will also be led out of these arid concepts into concrete life. I am fully convinced that one cannot do without soaring into the ethereal realm of abstraction, if one's experience is to penetrate life in all directions. He who is limited to the pleasures of the senses misses the sweetest enjoyments of life. The Oriental sages make their disciples live for years a life of resignation and asceticism before they impart to them their own wisdom. The Western world no longer demands pious exercises and ascetic practices as a preparation for science, but it does require a sincere willingness to withdraw oneself awhile from the immediate impressions of life, and to betake oneself into the realm of pure thought.
[ 9 ] The spheres of life are many and for each there develop a special science. But life itself is one, and the more the sciences strive to penetrate deeply into their separate spheres, the more they withdraw themselves from the vision of the world as a living whole. There must be one supreme science which seeks in the separate sciences the elements for leading men back once more to the fullness of life. The scientific specialist seeks in his studies to gain a knowledge of the world and its workings. This book has a philosophical aim: science itself is to be infused with the life of an organic whole. The special sciences are stages on the way to this all-inclusive science. A similar relationship is found in the arts. The composer in his work employs the rules of the theory of composition. This latter is an accumulation of principles, knowledge of which is a necessary presupposition for composing. In the act of composing, the rules of theory become the servants of life, of reality. In exactly the same sense philosophy is an art. All genuine philosophers have been artists in concepts. Human ideas have been the medium of their art, and scientific method their artistic technique. Abstract thinking thus gains concrete individual life. Ideas turn into life forces. We have no longer merely a knowledge about things, but we have now made knowledge a real, self-determining organism. Our consciousness, alive and active, has risen beyond a mere passive reception of truths.
[ 10 ] How philosophy, as an art, is related to freedom; what freedom is; and whether we do, or can, participate in it—these are the principle problems of my book. All other scientific discussions are put in only because they ultimately throw light on these questions which are, in my opinion, the most intimate that concern mankind. These pages offer a “Philosophy of Freedom”.
[ 11 ] All science would be nothing but the satisfaction of idle curiosity did it not strive to enhance the existential value of human personality. The true value of the sciences is seen only when we have shown the importance of their results for humanity. The final aim of the individuality can never be the cultivation of any single faculty, but only the development of all capacities which slumber within us. Knowledge has value only in so far as it contributes to the all-round unfolding of the whole nature of man.
[ 12 ] This book, therefore, does not conceive the relation between science and life in such a way that man must bow down before the world of ideas and devote his powers to its service. On the contrary, it shows that he takes possession of the world of ideas in order to use them for his human aims, which transcend those of mere science.
[ 13 ] Man must confront ideas as master; lest he become their slave.
I. Die Ziele alles Wissens.
Ich glaube einen Grundzug unseres Zeitalters richtig zu treffen, wenn ich sage: der Kultus des menschlichen Individuums strebt gegenwärtig dahin, Mittelpunkt aller Lebensinteressen zu werden. Mit Energie wird die Überwindung jeder wie immer gearteten Autorität erstrebt. Was gelten soll, muß seinen Ursprung in den Wurzeln der Individualität haben. Abgewiesen wird alles, was die volle Entfaltung der Kräfte des Einzelnen hemmt. „Ein jeglicher muß seinen Helden wählen, dem er die Wege zum Olymp hinauf sich nacharbeitet,“ gilt nicht mehr für uns. Wir lassen uns keine Ideale aufdrängen; wir sind überzeugt, daß in jedem von uns etwas lebt, das edel ist und wert, zur Entwicklung zu kommen, wenn wir nur tief genug, bis in den Grund unseres Wesens, hinabzusteigen vermögen. Wir glauben nicht mehr daran, daß es einen Normalmenschen giebt, zu dem alle hinstreben sollen. Unsere Anschauung von der Vollkommenheit des Ganzen ist die, daß es auf der besonderen Voll kommenheit jedes einzelnen Individuums beruht. Nicht das, was jeder andere auch kann, wollen wir hervorbringen, sondern, was nach der Eigentümlichkeit unseres Wesens nur uns möglich ist, soll als unser Scherflein der Weltentwicklung einverleibt werden. Niemals wollten die Künstler weniger wissen von Normen und Regeln der Kunst als heute. Jeder behauptet ein Recht zu haben, das künstlerisch zu gestalten, was ihm eigen ist. Es giebt Dramatiker, die lieber im Dialekt schreiben, als in einer von der Grammatik geforderten Normalsprache.
Keinen besseren Ausdruck kann ich finden für diese Erscheinungen als den: sie gehen hervor aus dem bis auß Höchste gesteigerten Freiheitsdrang des Individuums. Wir wollen nach keiner Richtung abhängig sein; und wo Abhängigkeit sein muß, da ertragen wir sie nur, wenn sie mit einem Lebensinteresse unseres Individuums zusammenfällt.
Ein solches Zeitalter kann auch die Wahrheit nur aus der Tiefe des menschlichen Wesens schöpfen wollen. Von Schillers bekannten zwei Wegen:
«Wahrheit suchen wir beide, du außen im Leben, ich innen
In dem Herzen, und so findet sie jeder gewils.
Ist das Auge gesund, so begegnet es außen dem Schöpfer;
Ist es das Herz, dann gewiß spiegelt es innen die Welt»
wird der Gegenwart vorzüglich der zweite frommen. Eine Wahrheit, die uns von außen kommt, trägt immer den Stempel der Unsicherheit an sich. Nur was einem jeden von uns in seinem eigenen Innern als Wahrheit erscheint, daran mögen wir glauben. Nur die Wahrheit kann uns Sicherheit bringen im Entwickeln unserer individuellen Kräfte. Wer von Zweifeln gequält ist, dessen Kräfte sind gelähmt. In einer Welt, die ihm rätselhaft ist, kann er kein Ziel seines Schaffens finden.
Wir wollen nicht mehr glauben; wir wollen wissen. Der Glaube fordert Anerkennung von Wahrheiten, die wir nicht ganz durchschauen. Was wir aber nicht durchschauen, widerstrebt dem Individuellen, das alles mit seinem tiefsten Innern durchleben will. Nur das Wissen befriedigt uns, das keiner äußeren Norm sich unterwirft, sondern aus dem Innenleben der Persönlichkeit entspringt.
Wir wollen auch kein solches Wissen, das in eingefrornen Schulregeln sich ein- für allemal ausgestaltet hat, und in, für alle Zeiten gültigen Kompendien aufbewahrt ist. Wir halten uns jeder berechtigt, von seinen nächsten Erfahrungen, _seinen unmittelbaren Erlebnissen auszugehen, und von da aus zur Erkenntnis des ganzen Universums aufzusteigen. Wir erstreben ein sicheres Wissen, aber jeder auf seine eigene Art.
Unsere wissenschaftlichen Lehren sollen auch nicht mehr eine solche Gestalt annehmen, als wenn ihre Anerkennung Sache eines unbedingten Zwanges wäre. Keiner von uns möchte einer wissenschaftlichen Schrift einen Titel geben, wie einst Fichte: „Sonnenklarer Bericht an das größere Publikum über das eigentliche Wesen der neuesten Philosophie. Ein Versuch, die Leser zum Verstehen zu zwingen.“ Heute soll niemand zum Verstehen gezwungen werden. Wen nicht ein besonderes, individuelles Bedürfnis zu einer Anschauung treibt, von dem fordern wir keine Anerkennung. Auch dem noch unreifen Menschen, dem Kinde, wollen wir gegenwärtig keine Erkenntnisse eintrichtern, sondern wir suchen seine Fähigkeiten zu entwickeln, damit es nicht mehr zum Verstehen gezwungen zu werden braucht, sondern verstehen will.
Ich gebe mich keiner Illusion hin in Bezug auf diese Charakteristik meines Zeitalters. Ich weiß, wie viel individualitätloses Schablonentum lebt und sich breit macht. Aber ich weils ebenso gut, daß viele meiner Zeitgenossen im Sinne der angedeuteten Richtung ihr Leben einzurichten suchen. Ihnen möchte ich diese Schrift widmen. Sie soll nicht „den einzig möglichen“ Weg zur Wahrheit führen, aber sie soll von demjenigen erzählen, den einer eingeschlagen hat, dem es um Wahrheit zu thun ist.
Die Schrift führt zuerst in abstraktere Gebiete, wo der Gedanke scharfe Contouren ziehen muß, um zu sichern Punkten zu kommen. Aber der Leser wird aus den dürren Begriffen heraus auch in das konkrete Leben geführt. Ich bin eben durchaus der Ansicht, daß man auch in das Ätherreich der Abstraktion sich erheben muß, wenn man das Dasein nach allen Richtungen durchleben will. Wer nur mit den Sinnen zu genielsen versteht, der kennt die Leckerbissen des Lebens nicht. Die orientalischen Gelehrten lassen die Lernenden erst Jahre eines entsagenden und asketischen Lebens verbringen, bevor sie ihnen mitteilen, was sie selbst wissen. Das Abendland fordert zur Wissenschaft keine frommen Übungen und keine Askese mehr, aber es verlangt dafür den guten Willen, kurze Zeit sich den unmittelbaren Eindrücken des Lebens zu entziehen, und in das Gebiet der reinen Gedankenwelt sich zu begeben.
Der Gebiete des Lebens sind viele. Für jedes einzelne entwickeln sich besondere Wissenschaften. Das Leben selbst aber ist eine Einheit, und je mehr die Wissenschaften bestrebt sind, sich in die einzelnen Gebiete zu vertiefen, desto mehr entfernen sie sich von der Anschauung des lebendigen Weltganzen. Es muß ein Wissen geben, das in den einzelnen Wissenschaften die Elemente sucht, um den Menschen zum vollen Leben wieder zurückzuführen. Der wissenschaftliche Spezialforscher will sich durch seine Erkenntnisse ein Bewußtsein von der Welt und ihren Wirkungen erwerben; in dieser Schrift ist das Ziel ein philosophisches: die Wissenschaft soll selbst organisch-lebendig werden. Die Einzelwissenschaften sind Vorstufen der hier angestrebten Wissenschaft. Ein ähnliches Verhältnis herrscht in den Künsten. Der Komponist arbeitet auf Grund der Kompositionslehre. Die letztere ist eine Summe von Kenntnissen, deren Besitz eine notwendige Vorbedingung des Komponierens ist. Im Komponieren dienen die Gesetze der Kompositionslehre dem Leben, der realen Wirklichkeit. Genau in demselben Sinne ist die Philosophie eine Kunst. Alle wirklichen Philosophen waren Begriffskünstler. Für sie wurden die menschlichen Ideen zum Kunstmateriale und die wissenschaftliche Methode zur künstlerischen Technik. Das abstrakte Denken gewinnt dadurch konkretes, individuelles Leben. Die Ideen werden Lebensmächte. Wir haben dann nicht bloß ein Wissen von den Dingen, sondern wir haben das Wissen zum realen, sich selbst beherrschenden Organismus gemacht; unser wirkliches, thätiges Bewußtsein hat sich über ein bloß passives Aufnehmen von Wahrheiten gestellt.
Wie sich die Philosophie als Kunst zur Freiheit des Menschen verhält, was die letztere ist, und ob wir ihrer teilhaftig sind oder es werden können: das ist die Hauptfrage meiner Schrift. Alle anderen wissenschaftlichen Ausführungen stehen hier nur, weil sie zuletzt Aufklärung geben über jene, meiner Meinung nach, den Menschen am nächsten liegenden Fragen. Eine „Philosophie der Freiheit“ soll in diesen Blättern gegeben werden.
Alle Wissenschaft wäre nur Befriedigung müßiger Neugierde, wenn sie nicht auf die Erhöhung des Daseinswertes der menschlichen Persönlichkeit hinstrebte.e Den wahren Wert erhalten die Wissenschaften erst durch eine Darstellung der menschlichen Bedeutung ihrer Resultate. Nicht die Veredlung eines einzelnen Seelenvermögens kann Endzweck des Individuums sein, sondern die Entwicklung aller in uns schlummernden Fähigkeiten. Das Wissen hat nur dadurch Wert, daß es einen Beitrag liefert zur allseitigen Entfaltung der ganzen Menschennatur.
Diese Schrift faßt deshalb die Beziehung zwischen Wissenschaft und Leben nicht so auf, daß der Mensch sich der Idee zu beugen hat und seine Kräfte ihrem Dienst weihen soll, sondern in dem Sinne, daß er sich der Ideenwelt bemächtigt, um sie zu seinen menschlichen Zielen, die über die bloß wissenschaftlichen hinausgehen, zu gebrauchen.
Man muß sich der Idee als Herr gegenüberstellen, sonst gerät man unter ihre Knechtschaft.
I. The Goals of All Knowledge.
I believe I am correctly identifying a fundamental feature of our age when I say that the cult of the human individual currently strives to become the center of all interests in life. Every effort is being made to overcome authority of any kind. What is to be valid must have its origin in the roots of individuality. Anything that hinders the full development of the individual's powers is rejected. “Everyone must choose their own hero, whom they follow on their way up to Olympus” no longer applies to us. We do not allow ideals to be imposed on us; we are convinced that there is something noble and worthy of development in each of us, if only we are able to descend deep enough, to the very core of our being. We no longer believe that there is a normal human being to whom we should all aspire. Our view of the perfection of the whole is that it is based on the particular perfection of each individual. We do not want to produce what everyone else can do, but rather what is possible only for us, according to the uniqueness of our nature, should be incorporated as our contribution to the development of the world. Never have artists wanted to know less about the norms and rules of art than they do today. Everyone claims the right to artistically express what is unique to them. There are playwrights who prefer to write in dialect rather than in the standard language required by grammar.
I can find no better expression for these phenomena than this: they arise from the individual's urge for freedom, heightened to the utmost. We do not want to be dependent in any direction; and where dependence is necessary, we only tolerate it if it coincides with an interest in the life of our individuality.
Such an age can only want to draw truth from the depths of human nature. Of Schiller's two well-known paths:
“We both seek truth, you outside in life, I inside
In the heart, and so everyone finds it willingly.
If the eye is healthy, it encounters the Creator outside;
If it is the heart, then surely it reflects the world inside.”
The present is best served by the latter. A truth that comes to us from outside always bears the stamp of uncertainty. We can only believe in what appears to each of us as truth within ourselves. Only truth can give us certainty in developing our individual powers. Those who are tormented by doubts find their powers paralyzed. In a world that is mysterious to them, they cannot find a goal for their creativity.
We no longer want to believe; we want to know. Faith demands acceptance of truths that we do not fully understand. But what we do not understand is repugnant to the individual, who wants to experience everything with his deepest inner being. Only knowledge that is not subject to any external norm, but springs from the inner life of the personality, satisfies us.
Nor do we want knowledge that has been frozen once and for all in school rules and preserved in compendiums that are valid for all time. We consider everyone entitled to start from their immediate experiences, their direct experiences, and from there ascend to the knowledge of the entire universe. We strive for certain knowledge, but each in his own way.
Our scientific teachings should no longer take on a form as if their acceptance were a matter of absolute compulsion. None of us would like to give a scientific work a title like Fichte once did: "A crystal-clear report to the general public on the true nature of the latest philosophy. An attempt to force readers to understand." Today, no one should be forced to understand. We do not demand recognition from those who are not driven by a special, individual need for a particular view. Even to those who are still immature, to children, we do not want to drum knowledge into them at present, but rather seek to develop their abilities so that they no longer need to be forced to understand, but want to understand.
I am under no illusions about this characteristic of my age. I know how much unindividualized stereotyping exists and is spreading. But I also know that many of my contemporaries are trying to organize their lives in the direction I have indicated. I would like to dedicate this writing to them. It is not intended to lead to “the only possible” path to truth, but it is intended to tell of the path taken by someone who is concerned with truth.
The text first leads into more abstract areas, where thoughts must take on sharp contours in order to arrive at certain points. But the reader is also led out of the dry concepts and into concrete life. I am of the opinion that one must also rise into the ethereal realm of abstraction if one wants to experience existence in all its dimensions. Those who know only how to enjoy with their senses do not know the delights of life. Oriental scholars require their students to spend years of renunciation and asceticism before they impart to them what they themselves know. The West no longer demands pious exercises and asceticism for the pursuit of science, but it does demand the willingness to withdraw for a short time from the immediate impressions of life and enter the realm of pure thought.
There are many areas of life. Special sciences develop for each individual area. But life itself is a unity, and the more the sciences strive to delve deeper into the individual areas, the further they move away from the view of the living whole of the world. There must be a knowledge that seeks the elements in the individual sciences in order to lead people back to a full life. The specialist researcher wants to use his findings to gain an awareness of the world and its effects; in this writing, the goal is philosophical: science itself should become organic and alive. The individual sciences are preliminary stages of the science sought here. A similar relationship prevails in the arts. The composer works on the basis of the theory of composition. The latter is a sum of knowledge, the possession of which is a necessary prerequisite for composing. In composing, the laws of composition serve life, real reality. In exactly the same sense, philosophy is an art. All real philosophers were conceptual artists. For them, human ideas became artistic material and the scientific method became artistic technique. Abstract thinking thus gains concrete, individual life. Ideas become life forces. We then have not merely knowledge of things, but we have made knowledge into a real, self-governing organism; our real, active consciousness has risen above a merely passive absorption of truths.
How philosophy as an art relates to human freedom, what the latter is, and whether we are or can become part of it: that is the main question of my writing. All other scientific explanations are included here only because they ultimately shed light on those questions which, in my opinion, are closest to human beings. A “philosophy of freedom” is to be presented in these pages.
All science would be nothing more than the satisfaction of idle curiosity if it did not strive to enhance the value of human existence. The sciences only attain their true value through a presentation of the human significance of their results. The ultimate goal of the individual cannot be the refinement of a single faculty of the soul, but rather the development of all the abilities that lie dormant within us. Knowledge has value only insofar as it contributes to the all-round development of the whole human nature.
This text therefore does not interpret the relationship between science and life as one in which humans must bow to ideas and devote their energies to serving them, but rather in the sense that they must take possession of the world of ideas in order to use it for their human goals, which go beyond the merely scientific.
One must confront the idea as a master, otherwise one falls under its servitude.