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The History of Art
GA 292

8 October 1916, Dornach

I. Cimabue, Giotto, and Other Italian Masters

We shall show a series of lantern slides representing a period of Art to the study of which we may presume the human mind will ever and again return. For in the artistic evolution of this period we witness the unfolding of some of the deepest human relationships which the outward course of history reveals in any epoch—provided we perceive in history the outward picture of inner spiritual impulses.

First you will see some picture by Cimabue. Under this name there go, or, rather, used to go—a number of pictures, church paintings, springing from a conception of life altogether remote from our own. Cimabue (or those who worked in the spirit of the school that is named after him)—Cimabue was working at about the time, let us say, of Dante's birth. For external history, what lies before this period in artistic evolution is veiled pretty much in darkness. So far as anything outwardly preserved is concerned, the work of Cimabue emerges in such a way that to begin with in the West, we can find no immediate historic predecessor. Not only so, but as you will presently bear witness for yourselves, in the history of European Art the school of Cimabue remained without succession.

As we try to feel our way into what comes before us in Cimabue's work, we find ourselves directed to influences coming over from the East. I will try to cut a long story short, albeit this will inevitably involve all the inaccuracies which are unavoidable in such a brief description. We must not forget that the time of the origin of Christianity, and the following centuries until the beginning of the second millennium A.D. when Cimabue lived,—that this epoch, when Christianity was slowly finding its way into all spheres of human life and action, was characterised by a turning of man's spiritual faculties towards the Cosmic, the Spiritual that transcends the Earth. To a great extent, all man's thought and interest was directed to the question: How did the higher spiritual Powers break through into this earthly life? What was it that came into this earthly world from spheres beyond? Men wanted to gain a conception of these things. And if one desired to express in pictorial Art what was thus living in the souls of men, it could be no question of copying Nature directly in any sense, or of painting true to Nature, or following this or that artistic ideal. Rather was it a question of calling forth those forces in the human soul—those powers of imagination, among other things—which can, as it were, make visible to eyes of sense the things from beyond this Earth. Now Western humanity did not possess sufficient powers of imagination to bring forth really plastic works of art. We know from earlier lectures that the Romans were an unimaginative people. It was into the unimaginative Roman culture that Christianity, coming from the East, first had to spread. Nevertheless, Christianity as it came over brought with it, along with all the other fertilising influences from the East, the fruits of Oriental imagination. Thus, inner spiritual visions and imaginations were connected with the early Christian conceptions.

Yonder in Greece vivid ideas arose, as to how one should portray the figures that are connected with the Mystery of Golgotha and with its workings. Witness the evolution of the forms in which they represented the person of the Redeemer Himself, or the Madonna, the angelic worlds beyond the Earth, the figures of saints and apostles transposed into higher realms. We can see quite clearly how, as Christianity found its way into the West, the Roman unimaginativeness, if I may so describe it, took hold of what came over, so rich in fancy and imagination, from the East. In the very earliest times of Christian Art we find the figure of Christ Jesus and the others around Him permeated still by the rich imagination of the Greeks. We find the Redeemer Himself portrayed in some instances with truly Apollonian features. Moreover, we know of a remarkable controversy that arose in the first Christian centuries. Should the Redeemer be represented in an ugly form, yet so, that through the ugly features there shone the inner life of soul, the mighty event that was being enacted in Him for mankind? This type of the Saviour, and similar types for the other characters connected with the Mystery of Golgotha, were evolved more in the East of Europe and in Greece. While in the West, in Italy, men were more of the opinion that the Saviour and all that were connected with Him should be represented beautifully. Strangely enough, this discussion went on into the time when in the West, under the influence of Rome, men had already lost the faculty to represent real beauty—a faculty which they had still possessed in former centuries under the more immediate influence of Greece. For outwardly though Greece was overcome, in a spiritual sense Rome herself had been conquered by the Grecian culture, which, however, subsequently fell into decay amid the unimaginative Romans. Thus in the succeeding centuries they lost the power to create true plastic beauty.

Thus there came over from Eastern tradition the earliest representations, created, of course, by human imagination, in the effort to express the new world-impulses springing from the Mystery of Golgotha. Enriched by Oriental fancy, this early Christian art was transplanted into Italy. And now,—almost all the earlier work having been lost,—in Cimabue's paintings or in those that go by his name, we see what had become of these impulses by the time of Dante's birth. We see them, as it were, at a final culminating point. Cimabue's paintings are frescoes on a large scale and must be understood as such. The figures they portray appear before us in an altogether unnaturalistic form, their outlines conceived more out of the life of feeling—spread over great surfaces, conceived, as it were, in two dimensions—large surfaces covered with the most eloquent painting. Alas, it is no longer really visible today, not even where Cimabue's own works are before us, for his pictures were for the most part subsequently painted over. The full vividness of his colouring, with its wonderful two-dimensional conception, is probably no longer to be seen at any place. Hence Cimabue's pictures lose least of all when shown in lantern slides. We recognise their character as a whole; these remarkable figures—their outlines, as I said, inspired more out of the feeling-life; colossal figures, conceived at any rate on a colossal scale and with impressive grandeur, so that one would say: From other worlds they gaze into this earthly world; they do not seem to have arisen from this earthly world at all. Such are his pictures of the Madonna. Such, gazing down into this earthly world, are his representations of the Saviour and of saints and angels and the like. We must realise that all these paintings are born of an imagination, in the background of which was still a life of spiritual vision. Such vision knew full well that the impulses of Christianity had come to Earth from another world, and that this unearthly world could not be represented in mere naturalistic forms.

We will now show some of Cimabue's pictures. His works are mostly to be seen in the Lower Church at Assisi; also in Paris and in Florence. We can only reproduce a very few:

Cimabue: Madonna with Angels and Prophets. (Academy, Florence.)

Look how the human eye, for instance, is drawn so that you can clearly see: It is not copied, but done by following with inner feeling the forces which were believed to be at work, moulding the eye organically in the body. The inner activity of the eye is feelingly traced out,—this is what inspires the forms. Plastically conceived, it is projected in the spirit on to the flat surface. In the background, as you can still see by these pictures, is the conception (far more familiar in the Orient than in the West) of something working in with abundant power from distant worlds. When in that time men let these pictures with their golden background work upon them, they had the feeling of a mighty overwhelming force pouring in from distant worlds into mankind. It was as though all the human confusion upon Earth was only there to be illumined by the Impulses proceeding from a reality beyond, which was pictured in this way.

Cimabue: Madonna (Detail)

Once more a picture of the Madonna. This, then, is what we have of Cimabue.

Cimabue: Madonna Rucellai. (Santa Maria Novella, Florence.)

We now pass on to the study of an artist who, for the external history of art, is, in a sense, Cimabue's successor. The legend has it that Cimabue found Giotto as a shepherd-lad who used to draw on rocks and stones, with the most primitive materials, the animals and other creatures which he saw around him in the fields. Cimabue, recognising the great talents of the boy, took him from his father and trained him in painting. Such legends are often truer than the outward ‘historic’ truth. It is true, as the legend suggests, that Giotto—Cimabue's great follower in the further development of art—was inspired in his inner life by the whole world in which he found himself through all that had been created by those whom we include under Cimabue's name. It is true, indeed, that a whole world of things from beyond the Earth looked down upon Giotto from the walls around him. (All this is no longer extant, for reasons we shall afterwards discuss.) On the other hand, we must never forget that with Giotto an entirely new artistic world-conception arose in the West. Indeed, it is Giotto, above all, who in the realms of art represents the rise of the new age, the 5th post-Atlantean age. In painting, the 4th post-Atlantean age goes down with Cimabue; the 5th begins with Giotto. (I leave out of account whether all the works which a well-founded tradition ascribes to Giotto were actually painted by him; for that is not the main point. It is true that under Giotto's name many works are included of which we can but say that they are painted in his spirit. Here, however, I will not go into this question, but simply ascribe to Giotto what tradition has ascribed to him.)

What was mankind entering into during that time, when we find Dante and Giotto side by side on the scene of history? It was entering into what I have always described as the fundamental characteristic of the 5th Post-Atlantean period: into a life in the midst of earthly-material realities. This must not be taken as a hostile criticism of Materialism. The time had to come to mankind to enter fully into the material reality, taking leave for a time of those things to which they had hitherto looked up and whose light we find reflected still in Cimabue's paintings.

We may ask ourselves this question: Who was the first really genuine materialist? Who was it gave the very first impetus to materialism? Considering the matter from a somewhat higher point of view, we shall arrive at an answer which will, of course, sound paradoxical to modern ears. Nevertheless, for a deeper conception of human history it is fully justified. I mean that the first man to introduce the material way of feeling into the soul-life of mankind was St. Francis of Assisi. I admit it is a paradox to describe the holy man of Assisi as the first great materialist, and yet it is so. For one may truly say: the last great conceptions in which the evolution of mankind is still described from a standpoint beyond the Earth come before us in the Divina Commedia of Dante. Dante's great work is to be regarded as a last expression of a consciousness still directed more to the things beyond the Earth. On the other hand the vision of the soul turned to the Earth, the sympathy with earthly things, comes forth with all intensity in Francis of Assisi, who, as you know, was before Dante's time. Such things always appear in the soul-life of mankind a little earlier than their expression in the realm of art. Hence we see the same impulses and tendencies which seized the artistic imagination of Giotto at a later time, living already in the soul of Francis of Assisi. Giotto lived from 1266 to 1337. Francis of Assisi was a man who came forth entirely from that kind of outer world which Roman civilisation, under manifold influences, had gradually brought forth. To begin with, his whole attention was turned to outer things. He delighted in the splendour of external riches; he had enjoyment in all things that make life pleasant, or that enhance man's personal well being. Then suddenly, through his own personal experiences his inner life was revolutionised. It was at first a physical illness which turned him altogether away from his absorption in external things and turned him to the inner life. From a man who in his youth was altogether addicted to external comfort, splendour, reputation, we see him change to a life of feeling directed purely to the inward things of the soul. Yet all this took place in a peculiar and unique way. For Francis of Assisi became the first among those great figures who, from that time onwards, turned the soul's attention quite away from all that sprang from the old visionary life. He, rather, turned his gaze to that which lives and moves immediately upon the Earth, and above all to man himself. He seeks to discover what can be experienced in the human soul, in the human being as a whole, when we see him placed alone, entirely upon his own resources. St. Francis was surrounded by mighty world-events which also took their course on Earth, if I may put it so, in such a way as to sweep past the single life of man, even as the rich imaginations of an earlier Art had represented sublime Beings gazing down from beyond the Earth into this world of human feeling. For in his youth, and later, too, St. Francis was surrounded by the world-historic conflict of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. Here one might say there was a battling in greater spheres, for impulses transcending what the single man on Earth feels and experiences—impulses for which the human being on the Earth were but the great and herd-like mass. Right in the midst of all this life, St. Francis with his ever more numerous companions upholds the right of the single human individuality, with all that the inner life of man can experience in connection with the deeper powers that ensoul and radiate and sparkle through each human soul. His vision is directed away from all-embracing cosmic, spiritual spheres, directed to the individual and human life on Earth. Sympathy, compassion, a life in fellowship with every human soul, an interest in the experiences of every single man, a looking away from the golden background whose splendour, inspired by oriental fancy, had radiated in an earlier art from the higher realms on to the Earth. St. Francis and his followers, looking away from all these things, turned their attention to the joys and sufferings of the poor man on Earth. Every single man now becomes the main concern, every single man a world in himself. Yes, one desires to live in such a way that every single man becomes a world. The Eternal, the Infinite, the Immortal shall now arise within the breast of man himself, no longer hovering like the vast and distant sphere above the Earth.

Cimabue's pictures are as though seen out of the clouds. It is as though his figures were coming from the clouds towards the Earth. And so, indeed, man had felt and conceived the Spiritual World hitherto. We today have no idea how intensely men had lived with these transcendent things. Hence, as a rule, we do not realise how immense a change it was in feeling when St. Francis of Assisi turned the life of the West more inward. His soul wanted to live in sympathy with all that the poor man was; wanted to feel the human being especially in poverty, weighed down by no possessions, and, therefore, valued by nothing else than what he simply is as a man. Such was St. Francis of Assisi; and this was how he sought to feel not only man but Christ Himself. He wanted to feel what Christ is for poor simple men. Out of the very heart of a Christianity thus felt, he then evolved his wondrous feeling for Nature. Everything on Earth became his brother and his sister; he entered lovingly not only into the human heart but into all creatures. Truly, in this respect St. Francis is a realist, a naturalist. The birds are his brothers and his sisters; the stars, the sun, the moon, the little worm that crawls over the Earth—all are his brothers and his sisters; on all of them he looks with loving sympathy and understanding. Going along his way he picks up the little worm and puts it on one side so as not to tread it underfoot. He looks up with admiration to the lark, calling her his sister. An infinite inwardness, a life of thought unthinkable in former times, comes forth in Francis of Assisi. All this is far more characteristic of St. Francis than the external things that are so often written about his life.

So we might say, man's gaze is now made inward and centered upon the earthly life; and the influence of this extends, by and by, to the artistic feeling. For the last time, we might say, Dante in his great poem represents the life of man in the midst of mighty Powers from beyond the Earth; but Giotto, his contemporary and probably his friend, Giotto in his paintings already brings to expression the immediate interest in all that lives and moves on Earth. Thus we see, beginning with Giotto's pictures, the faithful portrayal of the individual in Nature and in Man. It is no mere chance that the paintings ascribed to Giotto in the upper church at Assisi deal with the life of St. Francis, for there is a deep inner connection of soul between Giotto and Francis of Assisi—St. Francis, the religious genius, bringing forth out of a fervent life of soul his sympathy with all the growth of Nature upon Earth; and Giotto, imitating, to begin with, St. Francis' way of feeling, St. Francis' way of entering into the spirit and soul of the world.

Thus we see the stream of evolution leading on from Cimabue's rigid lines and two-dimensional conception, to Giotto, in whose work we see increasingly the portrayal of the natural, individual creature, the reality of things seen; we see things standing more and more in space, rather than speaking to us out of the flat surface.

We will now give ourselves up to the immediate impression of Giotto's pictures, one by one. We shall see his growing appreciation of the individual human character and figure. Giotto shows himself with all the greater emphasis inasmuch as his pictures deal with the sacred legend, and so he tries to reproduce in the outward expression the inmost and intensest life of the soul.

Now, therefore, we shall have before us a series of Giotto's pictures, beginning with those that are generally regarded as his earliest. You will still see in them the tradition of the former time, but along with it there is already the human element, in the way in which he knew it—the way that I have just described.

Giotto: Glorification of St. Francis. (San Francesco, Assisi)
Giotto: Madonna enthroned. (Alter-piece, Santa Croce, Florence.)
Giotto: Presentation in the Temple, (San Francesco, Assisi.)
Giotto: Apparition in Arles. (San Francesco, Assisi.)
Giotto: The Miracle of the Spring. (San Francesco, Assisi.)
Giotto: Poverty. (San Francesco, Assisi.)
Giotto: Awakening of the Youth of Suessa. (San Francesco, Assisi.)
Giotto: The Mourning for St. Francis by the Nuns. (San Francesco, Assisi.)

Thus gradually the whole life of St. Francis was painted by Giotto; and everywhere in his artistic work we find a feeling similar to that of St. Francis himself. Even when you take the visionary elements in these pictures, you will see how his effort is in every case to paint them from within, so that the language of human feeling is far more in evidence than in the pictures of Cimabue, who was concerned only with the gazing inward of transcendent impulses from spheres beyond the Earth. Again, in the faces themselves you will no longer find the mere traditional expression, but you will see in every case: The man who painted these pictures had really looked at the faces of men.

Giotto: Death of St. Francis. (Santa Croce, Florence.)

Look at these last two pictures. Their inherent tenderness recalls to us the beautiful fact that is related of the life of St. Francis. He had long been working at his Hymn to Nature—the great and beautiful hymn throughout which he speaks of his brothers and his sisters, of sisters Sun and Moon and the other planets, and of all earthly creatures. All that he had felt in loving, realistic devotion of his soul, in sympathy with Nature, is gathered up so wonderfully in this hymn. But the directness of his union with all earthly Nature finds expression most of all in this beautiful fact that the last verse wherein he addresses Brother Death was written in the very last days of his life. St. Francis could not sing the hymn of praise to Brother Death till he himself lay actually on his deathbed, when he called to his brothers that they should sing around him of the joys of death while he felt himself going out and out into that World which was now to receive his spirit. It was only out of the immediate, realistic experience that St. Francis could and would describe his tender union with all the world. Beautifully this is revealed in the fact that while he had sung the Hymn of Praise to all other things before, he only sang to Death when he himself was at Death's door. The last thing he dictated was the final verse of his great Hymn of Life, which is addressed to Brother Death, and shows how man, when he is thrown back upon himself alone, conceives the union of Christ with human life. Surely it cannot be more beautifully expressed than in this picture, revealing the new conception of human life that was already pouring from out St. Francis, and showing how directly Giotto lived in the same aura of thought and feeling.

Giotto: Joachim and the Shepherds. (Capella Madonna, Padua.)

I have inserted this later picture, so that you may see the progress Giotto made in his subsequent period of life. You see how the figures here are conceived still more as single human individuals. In the period from which the former pictures were taken, we see the artist carried along, as it were, by the living impulses of St. Francis. Here in this picture, belonging as it does to a later period of his life, we see him coming more into his own. We will presently return to the pictures more immediately following his representations of St. Francis.

Giotto: The Visitation. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)

This, too, is from his later period, showing a consideraby greater realism than before.

Giotto: Marriage of the Virgin. (Capella Madonna dell'Arena, Padua.)

Also of his later period.

Giotto: The Baptism of Christ. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)
Giotto: Justice and Injustice. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)

In such pictures we see how natural it was to the men of that age to express themselves in allegories. The conditions of life undergo immense changes in the course of centuries. It was a tremendous change when the life that had found expression in pictures at that time, passed over into that in which we live today, which takes its course more in thoughts and ideas communicated through the medium of books. This was a far greater revolution than is generally realised. The desire to express oneself in allegories was especially strong in that age. It is most interesting to see how in such a case artistic realism is combined with the striving to make the whole picture like a Book of the World in which the onlooker may read.

Giotto: St. Francis submits the Rules of his Order to the Pope. (Santa Croce, Florence.)

This picture is related once more the earlier art of Giotto—springing as it does from his increasing entry into the whole world of feeling of St. Francis of Assisi.

Giotto: The Ascension.of John the Evangelist. (Santa Croce, Florence.)
Giotto: St. John in Patmos. (Santa Croce, Florence.)

Beautifully we see how the artist seeks to represent the inner life of St. John, bringing forth out of his heart his inner connection with the great World. This, then, is St. John, writing, or at least conceiving, the Apocalypse.

Giotto: The Raising of Lazarus.
Giotto: The Flight into Egypt.
Giotto: The Annunciation to St. Anne.
Giotto: The Resurrection of Christ. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)
Giotto: The Crowning with Thorns. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)
Giotto: The Last Supper. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)
Giotto: The Visitation. (San Francesco, Assisi.)
Giotto: Madonna. (Academy, Florence.)

We will insert, directly after this Madonna by Giotto, the Madonna by Cimabue which we have already seen, so that you may recognise the immense difference in the treatment of the sacred figure. Observe—despite the obvious persistence of the old tradition—the realism of this picture, in the eyes, the mouth, and the whole conception of the Jesus child. We have before us human beings, copied from the reality of earthly life, looking out from the Earth into the World. Compare this with Cimabue's picture, where we rather have before us an original spiritual vision traditionally handed down—where Beings gaze from realms beyond the Earth into this world.

Cimabue: Madonna enthroned. (Academy, Florence.)

However much in the composition is reminiscent of the former picture, you will see, even in the way the lines are drawn, the immense difference between the two.

Giotto: The Last Judgment. (Detail.) (Capella Madonna dell' Arena, Padua.)
Giotto: Anger. (Capella Madonna dell' Arena. Padua.) Once more an allegorical picture.
Giotto: Mourning for Christ.

It is interesting to compare this picture with the “Mourning for St. Francis” which we saw before. The former was an earlier work, while this belongs to a very late period in Giotto's life. We will now insert the previous one once more so that you may see the great progression. This picture is taken from the chapel in Padua, where Giotto returned once more to the former legend.

Giotto: Mourning for St. Francis. (San Francesco, Assisi.)

Here, then, you see how he treats a very similar subject so far as the composition is concerned, at an earlier and at a much later stage in his career. Observe the far greater freedom, the far greater power to enter into individual details which the later picture reveals.

Giotto: The Feast of Herod. (Santa Croce, Florence.)
Giotto: The Appearance in Arles. (Santa Croce, Florence.)
Giotto: Birth and Naming of John the Baptist. (Santa Croce.)
Andrea da Firenze (School of Giotto): Doctrine of the Church. (Spanish Chapel, Santa Maria Novella. Florence.)
Andrea da Firenze (School of Giotto): The Church Militant. (Spanish Chapel, Santa Maria Novella, Florence.)

This picture, the Church Militant, is generally associated with the School of Giotto. Here you see the rise of that compositional element which was to play so great a part in the subsequent history of painting. Quite a new inner life appears before us here. We may describe the difference somewhat as follows:

If we consider the evolution of Christianity until the time of Dante and Giotto, we shall find a strong element of Platonism in its whole way of feeling. Far be it from me to mislead you into the belief that it contained the Platonic Philosophy; but Platonism, that is to say, a feeling and conception of the world which also finds expression in the philosophy of Plato, where man looks up into a sphere beyond the Earth, and does not carry into it anything that proceeds from the human intellect. After Giotto's time a theological, Aristotelian element entered more and more into the Christian world of feeling. Once again I do not say the philosophy of Aristotle, but a theological, Aristotelian quality. Men tried, as it were, to see and summarise the world in systematic conceptions such as you see in this picture, rising upward from a world below to a middle and thence to a higher world. Thus was the whole of life systematised through and through in an Aristotelian manner. So did the later Church conceive the life of man placed in the universal order. Past were the times from which Cimabue still rayed forth, when men's conception of a world beyond the Earth proceeded still from the old visionary life. Now came a purely human way of feeling; yet the desire was, once more, to lead this human feeling upward to a higher life—to connect it with a higher life, only now in a more systematic, more intellectual and abstract way. And so, in place of the Earlier Art, creating as from a single centre of spiritual vision, there arose the new element of composition. See the three tiers, rising systematically into higher worlds from that which is experienced and felt below. Observing this in the immediate followers of Giotto, you will already have a premonition, a feeling of what was destined to emerge in the later compositions. For who could fail to recognise that the same spirit which holds sway in the composition of this picture meets us again in a more highly evolved, more perfect form, in Raphael's Disputa.

Andrea da Firenza (School of Giotto): The Church Militant. (Detail.) (Santa Maria Novella, Florence.)

See how the spiritual events and processes of earthly life are portrayed in the grouping of the human figures. It is the same artistic conception which emerges in Raphael's great picture, generally known as the 'School of Athens.' Human beings are placed together to express the relationships that hold sway in earthly life.

Andrea da Firenze. (School of Giotto): The Church Militant. (Detail.)

I beg you especially to observe the unique way in which the fundamental idea comes to expression here: in the background the mighty building of the Church, and then, throughout the picture, the power going forth from the Church dignitaries, poured out into the world of the common people. Look at the expression of the faces. See how the artist's work is placed at the service of this grand idea: The rule of the Church raying out over the Earth. You may study every single countenance. Wonderfully it is expressed—raying outward from the centre—how each single human being partakes in the impulse that is thought to proceed from the Church through all the souls on Earth. The physiognomies are such that we see clearly: The whole thing was done by an artist who was permeated by this idea, and was well able to bring to expression in the countenance of men what the Church Militant would, indeed, bring into them. We see it raying forth from every single face. I beg you to observe this carefully, for in the later pictures which we shall see afterwards it does not come to expression with anything like the same power. Though the fundamental idea of the composition—expressed so beautifully here, both in the grouping of the figures and in the harmony between the grouping and the expressions of the faces—though the fundamental impulse was retained by later artists, nevertheless, as you will presently see for yourselves, it was an altogether different element that arose in their work.

Look at the dogs down here: they are the famous Domini Canes, the hounds of the Lord, for the Dominicans were spoken of in connection with the hounds of Lord. Angelico represents these Domini Canes in many of his pictures.

Tommaso Fini (Masolino): Feast of Herod. (Tapistry, Castiglione d'Olona.)

Here we come a stage further in artistic evolution. The following developments may be said to have proceeded from the stream and impulse of which Giotto was the great initiator. But from this source a two-fold stream proceeded. In the one, we see the realistic impulse emancipating itself more and more from the Spiritual. In Giotto and in the last two pictures the Spiritual still enters in, everywhere; for, after all, this impulse proceeding from the Church Militant throughout the World is conceived as a spiritual thing. Every single figure in the composition is such that we might say: Just as St. Francis himself lived after all in a spiritual world (albeit lovingly, realistically inclined through his soul to the earthly world around him), Giotto and his pupils, with 'however loving realism they grasped the things of this world, still lived within the Spiritual and could unite it with their conception of the single individual on Earth. But now, as we come on into the 14th and 15th century, we see the longing, faithfully to portray the individual and Natural, emancipating itself more and more. There is no longer that strong impulse to see the vision as a whole and thence derive the single figures, which impulse was there in all the former pictures, even where Giotto and his pupils went to the Biblical story for their subjects. Now we see the single figures more and more emancipated from the all-pervading impulse which, until then, had been poured out like a magic broach ever the picture as a whole. More and more we see the human figures standing out as single characters, even where they are united in the compositions as a whole. Look, for example, at the magnificent building here. Observe how the artist is at pains, not so much to subordinate his figures to one root-idea, as to represent in every single one a human individual, a single character. More and more we see the single human characters simply placed side by side. Though undoubtedly there is a greatness in the composition, still we see the single individuals emancipated naturalistically from the idea that pervades the picture as a whole.

Masolino: The Baptism of Christ. (Baptistery. Castiglione d'Olona.)

Even in this Biblical picture you can see how the expressions of the several figures are emancipated from the conception as a whole. Far more than heretofore, the artist's effort is to portray even the Christ in such a way that an individual human quality comes to expression in Him. Likewise the other figures.

Filippino Lippi: Vision of St. Bernard. (Florence.)

In this picture you can already lose the feeling of one idea pervading the whole. See, on the other hand, the wonderful expressions of the faces in Filippino Lippi's work, both in the central figure of the visionary and in the lesser figures. In every case the Human is brought out. Thus we see the one stream, proceeding from the source to which I just referred, working its way into an ever stronger realism, till it attains the wondrous inner perfection which you have before you in this figure of St. Bernard as he receives his vision.

Masaccio: The Tribute Money. (Capella Brancacci-Carmine, Florence.)

Here you see a wonderful progression in human feeling. Looking at this work of Masaccio's, you can take a keen interest in every single figure, in every single head of these disciples grouped around the Christ. Look, too, how the Christ Himself is individualised. Think of the tremendous progress in characterisation, from the pictures which we saw before, to this one. Observe the transition in feeling. Heretofore it was absorbed in the Christian cosmic conception. Now it has passed over to the renewed conception of the Roman power. Feel in this composition, in the expressions of the several figures, how the Roman concept of power is expressed. A little while ago we say the Rule of the Church Militant pouring out as a spiritual force over the whole. Here, for the most part, are highly individualised figures—men who desire power and who join together for the sake of power, while in the former case it was a spiritual light which shone through all their faces. In the earlier pictures, each was to be understood out of the whole, while here we can but grasp the whole as a summation of the individuals, each of whom is, in a sense, a power in himself. With all the greatness of the composition—the figures grouped around the mighty one, the Christ, mighty through His pure spiritual Being,—still you can read in the expressions of these men: ‘Ours is, indeed, a kingdom not of this world; yet it shall rule this world,’—and, what is more, rule it through human beings, not through an abstract spiritual force. All this is expressed in the figures of these men. So you see how the human and realistic element becomes more and more emancipated, while the artist's power to portray the individual increases. The sacred legends, for example, are no longer represented for their own sake. True, they live on, but the artists use them as a mere foundation. They take their start from the familiar story, using it as an occasion to represent the human being.

Masaccio: Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise. (Capella Brancacci-Carmine. Florence.)

See how the artist's attention is directed not to the Biblical story in itself but to the question: How will human beings look when they have been through the experience of Adam and Eve? We must admit that for his time the artist's answer is magnificent.

Ghirlandajo: Portrait, Framseslo Sassetti and Son. (London.)

I need scarce make a comment. With Ghirlandajo we come to a time when the faculty to portray man as man—to represent what is purely human in his life—has reached a high level of perfection.

Ghirlandajo: Last Supper. (Fresco.) (Ognissanti. Florence.)

Henceforth the Last Supper is no longer merely represented (as in the picture that we saw just now) so that the vision of those that behold it may be kindled to an experience of the sacred action. No; the story of the Last Supper is now taken as an opportunity to represent the human beings. Though it is not yet so much so as in some later pictures, nevertheless, we can already study here the physiognomies of the disciples one by one, observing how their human characters are working under the impression that has been kindled in their souls. Such pictures bring home to us the immense change in the whole artistic conception.

Signorelli: The Sermon of Anti-Christ. (Orvieto.) The same comments would apply to this picture.
Andrea Mantegna: Madonna. (Louvre. Paris.)

So, too, with the problem of the Madonna: the artists now are more concerned to bring out what is human and feminine in the Madonna than to represent the sacred fact. The sacred legend lives on; and, being familiar to all, is made use of to solve problems of artistic realism and to bring out the individual and human.

Andrea Mantegna: San Sebastian. (Vienna.)
Andrea Mantegna: Parnassus. (Louvre. Paris.)

In these artists, as the last pictures will illustrate, the Human impulse has already grown so strong that they no longer feel the same necessity to choose their subjects from the sacred legend. You can scarcely imagine the entry into Giotto's pictures of any other than a Christian subject. But when the Christian legend came to be no more than the occasion for the artists to portray the human being, they were presently able to emancipate the human subject from the Christian Legend. So we see them going forward to the art of the Renaissance, growing more and more independent of Christian tradition.

Fra Angelico: Descent from the Cross. (Academy. Florence.)

Having shown a number of pictures representing the realistic stream, if so we may call it—the seizing of the Human on the Earth, liberated from the Supersensible—we now come to the second stream above-mentioned, of which Fra Angelico is one of the greatest representatives.

It is, if I may so describe it, a more inward stream,a stream more of the soul. The artistic evolution which we followed hitherto was taken hold of more by the Spirit. In Fra Angelico we see the Heart, the soul itself, seeking to penetrate into the human being. It is interesting to see once more, in the wonderfully tender pictures of this artist, the attempt to grasp the individual and human, yet from an altogether different aspect, more out of the soul. Indeed, this lies inherent in the peculiar colourings of Fra Angelico, which, unhappily, we cannot reproduce. Here everything is felt more out of the soul, whereas the emancipation of the Human which appeared in the other realistic stream, came forth more out of the human Spirit striving to imitate the forms of Nature.

Fra Angelico: Crucifixion. (San Marco. Florence.)

It is by the path of the soul, as it were, that the soul-content of Christianity pours in through Fra Angelico. Hence the phenomenon of Fra Angelico is so intensely interesting. Formerly, as we have seen, a supersensible and spiritual content poured through the evolution of Christianity, and took hold also of the world of Art. Then the attention of man was turned to the world of Nature—Nature experienced by the soul of man. We have seen how the same impulses, living as a simple religious enthusiasm in St. Francis of Assisi, found artistic expression in Giotto. Henceforth, man's vision was impelled more and more to an outward naturalism. But in face of all this realism, his inner life seeks refuge, as it were, in the soul's domain, tending, again, rather to melt away the sharper lines of individuality, but striving all the more intensely to express itself, as a life of soul, in outer form. For the soul's life holds sway, pervading all the details in the work of Fra Angelico. It is as though the soul of Christianity took flight into these tender pictures, so widely spread abroad, though the most beautiful are undoubtedly in the Dominican Monastery at Florence.

Thus while the Spirit that had once held sway in vision of the Supersensible was now expended on the vision of the Natural, the soul took refuge in this stream of Art, which strove not so much to seize the physiognomy—the Spirit that is stamped on the expressions of the human countenance and of the things of Nature—but rather to convey the life of soul, pouring outward as a living influence through all expression.

Fra Angelico: The Last Supper. (San Marco, Florence.)

You will remember the picture of the Last Supper which we showed just now. There, everything depended on an answer to the question: How does Nature reveal the Spirit? How does Nature impress on the external features of men the signature of their experience in this event? Here, on the other hand, you see how all the characters are concentrated on a single feeling, and yet this single quality of soul finds living expression in them all. Here is essentially a life of soul, expressed through the soul; while in the former picture it was a life of the Spirit, finding a naturalistic expression. Down to the very drawing of the lines you can see this difference. Look at the wonderful and tender flow of line. Compare it with what you will remember of the former picture of the Last Supper.

Fra Angelico: Coronation of the Virgin Mary. (San Marco, Florence.)

See what a quality of soul is poured like a magic breath over this picture.

Fra Angelico: (from) The Last Judgment. (Museum. Berlin.)
Sandro Botticelli: Lucrezia Tornabuoni. (Frankfort.)

It is interesting how in Botticelli the same artistic impulse, which we found in Fra Angelico, is transferred—if I may put it so—to altogether different motives. Botticelli, in a certain respect, is most decidedly a painter of the life of soul. Yet he again emancipates, within the life of soul, the Human from the general Religious feeling which pervades the work of Fra Angelico. He emancipates the human working once more towards a certain naturalism in the expressions of the soul.

Compare this portrait with the head we saw before, by Ghirlandajo. In that case something essentially spiritual found naturalistic expression, while here we see an abundant life and content of the soul even in the drawing of the lines.

Sandro Botticelli: Adoration of the Magi. (Uffizi. Florence)
Sandro Botticelli: Pieta. (Alte Pinakothek, Munich.)
Sandro Botticelli: Coronation of the Virgin. (Uffizi. Florence)

Following on Fra Angelico, we have shown a series of Botticelli's so as to gain an impression of the progress in the painting of the soul's life, in contrast to the Spirit which we found in Masaccio and Ghirlandajo. These, then, were the two directions that grew directly out of the impulses proceeding from Giotto—impulses handed down through Giotto, and through Donatello in another sphere, down to these painters.

In the further course of evolution on these lines, we now come to the great Renaissance painters, of whom I still wish to show you a few pictures in this lecture. When we have a picture like this of Botticelli's before us, we realise the extraordinary intensity of progress from the 14th to the 15th and on into the 16th century—from the portrayal of the purely Human, In such artists as Ghirlandajo we see the Spiritual, absorbed into the sphere of Nature, brought to a high level of expression. Here in this other stream we see a rich life of soul, come to expression, even in the draughtmanship. In course of time men had attained the knowledge of the human form, with all its powers of expression. It was as though, from the starting-point of Heaven, Earth had been conquered by mankind. That deepening of life which had come about through Christianity passed more and more into the background, and it was as though the object now were to understand man as such in a far deeper way. The heavenly domain became a path of progress, towards the more perfect expression of the inner being of man as it stamps itself upon his outer features, and upon all that comes forth outwardly in the relationships of men to one another, in their life together. It is the conquest of the realm of Man, by the most varied paths, which comes before us here so wonderfully.

And now we see the union of all these impulses in the great artists, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael. Let us observe a few of Leonardo's pictures. We shall find in him a synthesis of the varied strivings which came be ore us in the other pictures. For in a high degree, the Leonardo da Vinci, there is a working-together of the Spiritual with the life of the soul—in his drawing, in his composition and in his power of expression.

Leonardo da Vinci: Sketches and Caricatures. (Windsor.)

To begin with I have selected some sketches and drawings by Leonardo, from which you may see how he endeavoured to study man in a fully realistic way. This, of course, was in a time when all that had been gained in the former periods was there to influence the artist. It is characteristic of Leonardo how radically he seeks to bring out the full expressiveness of man; he tries to seize the human being as a whole, and bring him forth to perfection in his drawing. He seeks to enhance his power of expression to the highest point by studying and holding fast all human needs. This was only possible in the flower of an artistic epoch containing all the works which we have seen today—the penetration of the human being in the Spirit and in soul.

Leonardo da Vinci: Madonna detta. (Eremitage, St. Petersburg.)

More, as I said, you see united all that had formerly been striven for by separate paths.

Leonardo da Vinci: Heads of Apostles. (Weimar.)

These are the heads of the Apostles from the famous fresco at Milan,—the Last Supper, which, also, is scarcely visible today, for only isolated patches of colour now remain. We see that in this great artistic epoch the sacred legend merely provided a foundation for the working-out of human characters. Especially in his Last Supper, Leonardo is at pains to study the single human characters. We see him working very, very long at this wonderful picture, for he wanted to study the human characters in all detail. We know how often he disappointed his clients—the dignitaries of the Church. Thus, after long labour, he had not finished Judas Iscariot, and when the Abbot, high dignitary that he was, kept pressing him to finish it at last, his answer was that hitherto, alas, he had not been able to finish it since he lacked a model for Judas Iscariot; but now the Abbot himself, if he would kindly sit for him, would provide an excellent model for the purpose.

Leonardo da Vinci: Last Supper.
Leonardo da Vinci: Heads of Apostles. (Weimar.)
Leonardo da Vinci: Portrait of Himself. (Milan.)
Leonardo da Vinci: St. Jerome. (Vatican. Rome.)
Leonardo da Vinci: Adoration of the Magi. (Uffizi. Florence.)
Perugino: Crucifixion: (Sta. Maria dei Passi. Florence.)

We go on in this classical epoch. I beg you to observe this picture by Perugino, Raphael's teacher, to see how Raphael's art grew out of his predecessor's. In Perugino a new element makes its appearance:—a deep religious quality which tries to find expression in the composition, combined with a powerfully architectural imagination. On this, the greatness of Raphael very largely depended.

Perugino: The Betrothal.
Raphael: The Betrothal.

Look at these two pictures: You will see the one actually growing out of the other; you will recognise how Raphael, starting from his teacher, attained his greatness, receiving the ripest fruits from the different streams which we have learned to know this evening; Raphael brings soul and Spirit into his pictures and combines them with that element of composition which came from his especial schooling.

Perugino: Vision of St. Bernard. (Alte Pinakothek. Munich.)

You will remember the earlier picture of the 'Vision of St. Bernard' which we saw this evening. Consider the great difference. In the former case there was an effort to make the Spirit powerfully active in all that was brought into the picture. Here we see a pure element of composition, contriving to express what is, indeed, the chosen motif of the picture but does not penetrate it fully. Perugino cannot yet deepen his composition so that a living soul speaks out of it. Nevertheless, we see how great a part this element of composition plays in his school of painting.

Perugino: The Giving of the Keys to St. Peter. (Sistine Chapel. Vatican. Rome.)

Here, then, where Raphael receive' such powerful influences, we see the entry of an element of composition. You will, of course, see how great a part it plays in Raphael. In the former pictures we cannot speak of it in the speak of it in the same way as here. The composition was, rather, the result of a totality,—a totality which the artist felt more as a living organism. Man, too, after all, is composed; but though he is composed of head and arms and legs and so forth, we cannot really call this a 'composition'; for in man everything proceeds as from a centre, and we feel his composition—of arms and legs, of head and trunk—as a natural totality, a thing that goes without saying. Here in this picture you not feel it as a natural totality, a thing that goes without saying. You feel it definitely, purposely composed; whereas you will find the earlier compositions flowing more out of a single whole. Here, you see, the whole is placed together; it is literally composed.

Proceeding, therefore, from the 13th, 14th, 15th centuries, we recognise the one stream which seeks to conquer Nature through the Spirit, and leads on to a higher stage of realism. Side by side with it we see another stream which seeks to conquer Nature from the aspect of the soul. And now, coming across from Central and Eastern Italy where Raphael and his predecessors had their home, we see this power of composition, this working from the single parts towards the whole, whereas all the former streams still contained an echo of the working from the whole into the single parts, a thing that you could see most strongly, for example, in that composition representing the spiritual rule of the Church pouring out into the world, where everything was conceived out of a given unity, and nothing was built up out of the single details, as it is in this case.

Raphael: Pope Leo X. (Pitti Gallery. Florence.)

See how the spiritual element finds its way into the soul of Raphael—I mean, all that has been achieved by that spiritual element which grew into Naturalism.

Raphael: Pope Julius II. (Uffizi. Florence.)
Orcagna: Triumph of Death. (Campo Santo. Pisa.)

I have inserted this last picture to show how the element of allegory still worked on. I drew attention to it in Giotto. It worked on along with all the other streams; indeed, it was the one thing that more or less remained of the earlier more spiritual conception. This one thing remains:—this element of abstract allegory which is especially to be found in the pictures in the Campo Santo at Pisa, magnificent as they are in many respects. It belongs, indeed, to an earlier time. Nevertheless, I wanted to show you how this allegorical element still worked on even in a later age.

All these things, then, were living in the feeling of the human being,—a spiritual power and a life of soul poured out into Naturalism; and withal, no longer an ability to grasp the whole as such, but purposeful. composition. Lastly, the remnants of allegory.

Orcagna: Triumph of Death. Campo Santo. Pisa.)
Orcagna: Triumph of Death. (Campo Santo. Pisa.)
Francesco Traini: St. Thomas Aquinas. (Sta. Caterina. Pisa.)

In this picture you see once more the working-on of allegory. It is intended to represent the influence of the scholastic doctrine, on the one hand downward to the Earth, even to the conquest of heresy, and on the other hand upward into the heavenly regions where the rays of what is living on the Earth are received into the midst of sacred beings. What was conceived working, as it were, in the spiritual substance of the Earth, is here expressed in allegory. It is an allegory, but one derived from the reality. Here, then, the last-named element—that of allegory—is taken as a starting-point, not for the mere sake of allegory in itself, but, rather, to express in allegory what they conceived as really working, even as they represented it.

Thus we have tried to understand the different streams. I will once more repeat them: The Spirit striving into Naturalism; the life of soul, growing ever more realistic in its expressiveness, even as the artists grew more capable of portraying the soul's life in the outward expression; the element of composition, placing together single features in order that the whole might have a spiritual effect; and, lastly, the element of allegory. We have traced these influences, each and severally. Thus was built up what came at last to full expression in the creations of Raphael, Michelangelo and their successors. Throughout, we see a spiritual force, passing through man by varied ways and channels, seeking to conquer Nature. First we see the Spirit endeavouring to master what comes to expression in the human being through the human Spirit. Then the spiritual faculty of vision enters more and more into man's grasp of outer Nature. Then, in such artists as Fra Angelico and Botticelli, we see the entry of a life of soul. And when the composition was no longer given as a matter of course out of a spiritual vision, we witness the attempt to bring the Spirit to expression by composition deliberately placed together, in which direction Raphael achieved the highest eminence. Lastly, we see how the longing to give voice to the great cosmic process led to Allegory, and how Allegory itself grew into Realism, as you can see in this very picture. Indeed, in Raphael it grew once more into a perfectly natural spirituality, a spirituality that works as a matter of course. I beg you to remember such a composition as his 'St. Cecilia' at Bologna. Here we still see, a central figure is set down with obviously allegorical intention, seeking to represent the soul-life of the human being in its connection with the Universe.

Raphael: Saint Cecilia (Bologna, Pinacoteca)

In Raphael's St. Cecilia there is the central figures standing in the midst; yet the thing has gone so far that the allegorical quality is completely overcome, obliterated, as it were, so much so that there is much argument today as to what this 'St. Cecilia' is meant to express, though they need only to look up their Calendars to see how closely the picture adheres to the tradition. For in the legends of the Saint you will find all that Raphael included in this wonderful creation. But to such an extent did he attain Nature's power to express the Spirit and the Soul in form, that we no longer notice all the Allegory that underlies the picture. And that, indeed, is the great thing in this epoch, attained by Michelangelo and Raphael. In all the former streams, the impulses from which they come are recognisable. Here, each and all, they are overcome to perfection, with the attainment of a pure and fresh and free (for that time fresh and free) vision and reproduction of the reality around us, in its natural material content and in its soul and Spirit. The works created by this age were based, indeed, on the preceding evolution which we have described. Here, above all, we recognise how such achievements must be preceded by many lines of evolution, which, only inasmuch as they take their start from the Spirit, lead to the recognition of the Spirit in the outer world. Man must first seek the Spirit, then will he find the Spirit in the outer world. Man must first feel and experience the Soul, then will he find them also in the external Nature. Thus we see how the Spiritual that was still at work in Cimabue, worked on after him in Giotto, who in turn carried it outward as a means to understand the forms of Nature. We see the spiritual content radiating still from Giotto's work, applied still further by his successors to apprehend the Spirit in the world of Nature. We see how the deep soul-impulse that came through Francis of Assisi, taking hold of the life of the soul in man himself, was expressed with a certain artistic perfection in the Christian piety of Fra Angelico. This impulse once again rays forth into the world; we have the essence of Botticelli. Then (if I may so express it), out of a kind of memory of the totality of vision which is lost, the artist tries to piece together the single features into a composition, thus creating a totality once more, so that the Spirit—which was lost to immediate vision, to be used in a new way in the taking hold of Nature,—might work again from the totality. And at length we see, in the quest of Allegory, the search for means of expression, leading in the last resort to the overcoming of all Allegory; to the finding the means of expression even in Nature herself. For to him who first sets out to seek it, the free and open-minded vision of the outer World itself will give what he desires. Nature herself is allegorical; yet does she nowhere impose her allegories on us, or let us see them outwardly as such. Man must learn what is there to be read in the book of Nature. But at first he often has to learn his reading in clumsy devious byways. In such a work as the picture of St. Thomas which we saw before, we witness still a clumsy and unskillful reading of the book of Nature. In Raphael's St. Cecilia, on the other hand, we have a reading which contains no longer any Allegory, no longer any of that abstract element which has not yet arisen to the full height of Art.

Thus I think we shall have gained a conception, how the great epoch of the Italian Renaissance gradually came into being. Again and again, I think, the vision of man will be directed to these times, to this artistic evolution; for it lets us gaze so deeply into the life and working of piety, of Wisdom and of Love in the human soul, combined with the artistic fancy, striving to reproduce Nature with a fresh and open mind. It lies not in the mere imitation of Nature, but in the faculty of Man, with all that he has found in his own soul, to discover again in Nature what is already there in her, akin to the inmost experiences of the human soul. This, I venture to hope, our descriptions today—however brokenly, however imperfectly—may still have brought to light.

Raphael: Detail of Saint Cecilia (Bologna, Pinacoteca)

1. Cimabue Giotto und Andere Italienische Meister

Die Wandlung des menschlichen Bewußtseins in der Kunst der sich allmählich herausbildenden italienischen Renaissance im Übergang des vierten nachatlantischen Zeitraums zum fünften:

Wir werden eine Reihe von Reproduktionen, von Lichtbildern einer Kunstperiode vorführen, zu deren Betrachtung der menschliche Sinn wohl immer wiederum zurückkehren wird, weil wir gerade in der Entwickelung dieser Zeit menschliche Verhältnisse sich in bezug auf das Künstlerische ausleben sehen, die zu den tiefeinschneidendsten gehören, die wir im äußeren Verlauf der menschlichen Geschichte betrachten können, wenn wir diese menschliche Geschichte als ein Abbild innerer geistiger Impulse betrachten.

Sie sehen zuerst einige Bilder von Cimabue. Unter dem Namen Cimabue gehen - gingen vielmehr - eine Anzahl von Bildern, eine große Anzahl, muß man vermuten, Kirchenmalereien, welche einer von der unsrigen, von unserer heutigen gänzlich entfernten Weltanschauung, Weltauffassung entstammen. Cimabue - beziehungsweise diejenigen, die im Sinne jener Malerei-Richtung arbeiteten, die unter dem Namen Cimabue genannt wird -, Cimabue also malte in der Zeit etwa, in der Dante geboren ist. Was in bezug auf die Kunstentwickelung vor dieser Zeit liegt, ist für die äußere geschichtliche Anschauung in ziemliches Dunkel gehüllt. Es tritt in dem, was erhalten ist, die Leistung Cimabues so auf, kann man sagen, daß man von hier aus zunächst geschichtlich keinen Vorgänger im Abendlande sieht. Aber an dem, was wir heute weiter vorführen werden, können Sie, werden Sie auch sehen, daß sie in der europäischen Kunstentwickelung keine Nachfolge gefunden hat, diese Cimabuesche Richtung.

Wenn wir uns in das hineinfühlen wollen, was uns bei Cimabue entgegentritt, so werden wir vielmehr gewiesen auf Einflüsse, die vom Orient herüberkommen, und ich will gewissermaßen eine lange Geschichte kurz charakterisieren. Selbstverständlich fließen bei einer solchen kurzen Charakteristik alle Ungenauigkeiten mit ein, die eben mit einer kurzen Charakteristik verknüpft sind. Wir dürfen nicht vergessen, daß die Zeit, in der das Christentum entstanden ist, und die folgenden Jahrhunderte bis zum Ablauf des ersten Jahrtausends, zum Anfange des zweiten Jahrtausends, in dessen Anfang ja eben Cimabue gemalt hat, daß diese Zeit des allmählichen Einlebens des Christentums auf allen Gebieten menschlicher Betätigung ein Hinlenken der menschlichen Geistesfähigkeiten, man möchte sagen ins Überirdische, ins Geistig-Kosmische war. Und aller Sinn der Menschen war zunächst darauf gerichtet, eine Anschauung darüber zu gewinnen: Wie brachen höhere geistige Mächte in das Erdenleben herein? Was kam aus Sphären, die außerhalb des Erdenlebens liegen, in das Erdenleben herein? Wollte man bildhaft ausdrücken, was da in den Menschenseelen lebt, wollte man es in die Kunst hineinführen, dann konnte es sich zunächst gar nicht darum handeln, irgendwie die Natur unmittelbar nachzubilden, getreu der Natur zu malen oder sich sonstwie künstlerisch zu betätigen; es handelte sich vielmehr darum, die Kräfte in der Menschenseele aufzurufen, auch die Phantasiekräfte, die fähig sind, gewissermaßen das Überirdische sinnlich anschaulich zu machen. Und diese Phantasiekräfte standen ja der abendländischen Menschheit nicht so zu Gebote, daß wirklich Gestaltetes hätte herauskommen können. In Vorträgen, die ich hier gehalten habe, wurde dargestellt, daß die Römer ein «phantasieloses» Volk waren. Und in die Phantasielosigkeit der Römer hinein hat sich ja zunächst von Osten her das Christentum ausgebreitet. Es kam aber herüber, befruchtet neben all dem, womit es sonst vom Orient aus befruchtet war, auch durch das Phantasiieleben des Orients, so daß man mehr innere geistige Anschauungen verknüpft hat mit dem, was man als christliche Vorstellungen hatte.

In Griechenland drüben bildete sich eine Anschauung aus, wie man die Gestalten darzustellen habe, welche im Zusammenhange mit dem Mysterium von Golgatha und seinen Wirkungen stehen. Und am besten sieht man wohl an der Gestaltung, an der Entwickelung der Gestaltung, die die Person des Erlösers selbst betrifft, und von Gestalten wie der Madonna und der damit im Zusammenhange stehenden überirdischen Engelwelten, der ins Überirdische entrückten Apostelgestalten, Heiligengestalten und so weiter, man sieht an alledem am besten, wie beim Einleben des Christentums ins Abendland, man möchte sagen von römischer Phantasielosigkeit erfaßt worden ist, was sehr phantasievoll herübergekommen ist vom Osten. Wir wissen ja, daß in den ersten Zeiten der christlichen Darstellung die Erlösergestalt selbst, die Gestalt des Christus Jesus und andere Gestalten, die damit verknüpft sind, noch durchdrungen waren von der griechischen Phantasie. Wir haben Bildwerke, die den Erlöser selber geradezu apollohaft darstellen. Wir haben ein Wissen davon, wie sich in den ersten Jahrhunderten der christlichen Entwikkelung dann ein merkwürdiger Streit entwickelte, ob man den Erlöser häßlich darstellen sollte, so, daß durch die häßlichen Züge das innere Seelenleben, das Gewaltige, das sich da für die Menschheit abgespielt hat, zum Ausdruck kommt. Dieser Erlösertypus und ähnliche Typen anderer Gestalten, die mit dem Mysterium von Golgatha zusammenhängen, haben sich mehr innerhalb des europäischen Ostens und innerhalb Griechenlands entwickelt. Dagegen war man im Westen, in Italien mehr der Ansicht, daß die Erlösergestalt und alles, was damit zusammenhing, schön dargestellt werden sollte. Diese Diskussion reicht aber in eine Zeit hinein, merkwürdigerweise, in welcher man im Abendland unter dem Einfluß des Römertums schon die Fähigkeit verloren hatte, die Schönheit darzustellen, die man unter dem unmittelbaren Einfluß des Griechentums darstellen konnte, als Griechenland äußerlich überwunden war, aber eigentlich auch das Römertum geistig vom Griechentum erobert worden war, was aber verfiel unter dem phantasielosen Römertum. Die Fähigkeit, Schönheit zu gestalten, ging in den folgenden Jahrhunderten verloren.

Und so kam es denn, daß aus dem Osten traditionell das herübergekommen ist, was man ja durch die Phantasie geschaffen hatte, um die neuen Weltimpulse auszudrücken, die durch das Mysterium von Golgatha befruchtet worden waren. Und so verpflanzte sich dann das von orientalischer Phantasie befruchtete Künstlertum künstlerisch herein nach Italien. So müssen wir die Sache ansehen. Und was bis in die Zeiten, in denen Dante geboren worden ist, diese Impulse geworden sind, das sehen wir dann, nachdem alles Frühere mehr oder weniger untergegangen ist, nicht mehr da ist, in einer Enderscheinung, die aber schon beeinflußt ist nun vom Abendlande: in den Schöpfungen, die unter dem Namen des Cimabue gehen. Cimabues Malereien sind Wandmalereien und als solche eigentlich zu verstehen. Es sind Malereien, welche uns die Gestalten, die sie darstellen, so zeigen, daß wir sie ganz unnaturalistisch sehen, mit mehr, ich möchte sagen gefühlsmäßig gedachten Konturen und auf großen Flächen, über große Flächen ausgebreitet, flächenhaft gedacht und die Fläche durchdacht mit sehr sprechender Malerei, die aber heute nicht mehr eigentlich zu schauen ist; auch da, wo man Cimabue sehen kann, ist sie nicht mehr zu schauen, denn die Bildwerke des Cimabue sind zum größten Teil später aufgemalt. Das ganz Lebendige in der Farbengebung und das flächenhaft Gedachte in der Farbengebung ist wohl überhaupt nicht mehr zu sehen. Daher verlieren gerade die Bilder von Cimabue am allerwenigsten, wenn man sie als Lichtbilder darstellt. Man kann den vollständigen Charakter auch erkennen, dieser eigentümlichen, in mehr — wie gesagt — gefühlsmäßlig gedachten Konturen dargestellten Figuren, die etwas Kolossalisches haben, wenigstens als Kolossalisches gedacht sind, als kolossale Wirkungen gedacht sind und mehr so gedacht sind, daß man sagen kann: sie schauen in die Erdenwelt herein aus anderen Welten, denn daß sie aus der Erdenwelt selber entsprungen sind. So sind die Madonnenbilder; so sind, hereinschauend in das Erdenleben, die Darstellungen des Heilandes selbst, der Heiligen, der Engel und dergleichen. Wir müssen uns durchaus klarmachen, daß das, was da gemalt ist, in einer Phantasie wurzelt, die im Hintergrunde noch ein visionäres Leben hatte - ein visionäres Leben, das fähig war, einzusehen, daß die Impulse des Christentums aus einer der Erde fremden Welt gekommen sind und daß man diese der Erde fremde Welt nicht naturalistisch darstellen will.

Nun werden ein paar Bilder von Cimabue vorgeführt werden. Die Bilder von Cimabue sind ja in Wirklichkeit zu sehen zum Teil in der Kirche in Assisi, zum Teil sind sie in Paris zu sehen, in Florenz auch. Wir haben nur ein paar, die wir vorführen können:

1-4 Cimabue Madonna mit Engeln und Propheten

Sie sehen überall, wie zum Beispiel das menschliche Auge so gezeichnet ist, daß man sieht: es ist nicht abgezeichnet, sondern es ist aus einem fühlenden Nachempfinden der Kräfte heraus charakterisiert, von denen man glaubte, daß sie an der organischen Einprägung des Auges beteiligt sind. Die innere Tätigkeit des Auges ist es, die nachgefühlt wird und aus der heraus diese Dinge geformt sind; es ist, man möchte sagen plastisch gedacht und auf die Fläche hin im Geiste projiziert. Dabei liegt immer — man sieht es diesen Bildern noch an - der Begriff, der im orientalischen Leben viel mehr vorhanden ist als im Abendlande, der anzutreffen war in der nächstfolgenden Zeit, der Begriff des durch Mächtigkeit, durch Reichtum aus einer fernen Welt Hereinwirkenden vor. Wenn man diese Bilder mit ihrem Goldgrunde auf sich wirken ließ in der damaligen Zeit, so hatte man vor allen Dingen das Gefühl, daß ein Mächtiges, ein die Menschen Überwältigendes aus einer fernen Welt hereinwirkt; daß, was sich da auf der Erde an Menschengewühl abspielt, eigentlich nur da ist, um beschienen zu werden von den Impulsen, die von außerirdischer Realität ausgingen, die man sich in dieser Weise verwirklichte.

3 Cimabue Madonna mit Engeln und Propheten

Also das gleiche Bild wie vorher, aber vor der Übermalung. Ein weiteres Bild der Madonna:

4 Cimabue Madonna mit Engeln und Propheten, Teil von 1

Und noch ein Bild der Madonna:

5 Duccio di Buoninsegna Madonna Rucellai 1Damals noch Cimabue zugeschrieben.

Das ist das, was wir von Cimabue haben. Jetzt gehen wir über zu der Betrachtung eines Künstlers, der im Verlaufe der äußeren Geschichtsbetrachtung gewissermaßen der Fortsetzer von Cimabue ist:

9 Giotto Die Huldigung für den hl. Franz

Es besteht ja auch die Legende, daß Cimabue den Giotto gefunden habe als einen Hirtenknaben; wie der Hirtenknabe, was er an Tieren und sonstigen Naturgeschöpfen gesehen hat, auf dem Felde mit primitiven Mitteln auf Steine aufgezeichnet hat, und daß Cimabue ein so bedeutendes Talent in Giotto entdeckt hat, daß er ihn dem Vater weggenommen und zum Maler ausgebildet hat. - Solche Legenden sind wahrer als die äußere historische Wahrheit. Sie zeigen, daß allerdings derjenige, der nun in der Kunstentwickelung als einer der Bedeutendsten auf Cimabue folgt, Giotto, daß der angeregt war in bezug auf sein inneres künstlerisches Seelenleben selbstverständlich von der ganzen Welt, in die er hineingestellt war durch das, was geschaffen wurde von denjenigen, die zusammengefaßt werden unter dem Namen Cimabue. Aber wenn wir uns auch vorstellen müssen, daß gewissermaßen die ganze überirdische Welt überall von den Wänden her auf Giotto wirkte - das alles ist ja heute nicht mehr vorhanden aus Gründen, die wir nachher besprechen wollen -, wenn wir uns auch vorstellen, daß diese ganze Welt, diese das Überirdische abbildende Welt auf Giotto wirkte, so dürfen wir doch niemals aus den Augen verlieren, daß mit Giotto eine ganz neue künstlerische Weltauffassung in das Abendland eintrat und daß Giotto diejenige Persönlichkeit auf künstlerischem Gebiete genannt werden muß, welche im eminentesten Sinne auf dem Kunstgebiete zeigt das Heraufkommen der neuen fünften nachatlantischen Zeit. Man könnte sagen: Die vierte nachatlantische Zeit geht malerisch mit Cimabue unter, die fünfte geht mit Giotto auf. Ich lasse außer acht, ob das, was man durch eine allerdings sehr gut gegründete Tradition dem Giotto zuschreibt, alles von Giotto selbst gemalt ist; darauf kommt es nicht an. Allerdings, es vereinigt sich unter dem Namen Giotto vieles, was nur in dem gleichen Geiste gemalt ist, in dem Giotto selber gemalt hat. Ich werde mich also in dem Folgenden darauf nicht einlassen, sondern was der Tradition nach Giottos Werk ist, eben auch Giotto zuschreiben.

In was lebt sich denn die neuere Menschheit überhaupt hinein in der Zeit, in der ja auch Dante und Giotto persönlich zusammenstoßen? - Es lebt sich die neuere Menschheit in das hinein, was ich ja immer schildere als den Grundcharakter der fünften nachatlantischen Periode: in das Leben innerhalb der irdisch-materiellen Wirklichkeit. Das muß man nicht als eine abfällige Kritik des Materialismus auffassen, sondern man muß sich eben klar sein, daß sich die Menschheit einmal einleben mußte in die irdische Wirklichkeit, einmal Abschied nehmen mußte gewissermaßen von dem Hinaufschauen in ein Überirdisches, das noch seinen Abglanz malerisch zeigt bei Cimabue.

Wenn wir uns fragen: Wer war denn eigentlich der erste so richtige Materialist, der dem Materialismus den allerersten Anstoß gegeben hat? - dann bekommen wir, wenn wir die Geschichte von einem etwas höheren Gesichtspunkte aus betrachten, eine Antwort, die ganz gewiß dem heutigen Menschen selbstverständlich paradox klingen wird, aber die vom Standpunkt einer tieferen Auffassung der Menschheitsgeschichte voll berechtigt ist; wir bekommen die Antwort, daß der erste, der seelisch das materielle Fühlen einleitete, der heilige Franz von Assisi ist. Es ist allerdings paradox, Franziskus, den Heiligen von Assisi, zu charakterisieren als den ersten großen Materialisten. Aber so ist es doch. Man kann sagen: Die letzten Anschauungen, die die Entwickelung der Menschheit noch unter dem Gesichtspunkt des Überirdischen betrachteten, die traten uns in Dantes «Göttlicher Komödie» entgegen, so daß wir auch Dantes «Göttliche Komödie» anzusehen haben als den Abschluß von Anschauungen, die mehr hin gerichtet waren auf das Außerirdische. Dagegen tritt der Blick für das Irdische, das Mitfühlen mit dem Irdischen bei dem ja schon vor Dante tätigen Franziskus von Assisi hervor. Das Seelische tritt immer etwas früher auf als der Ausdruck im Künstlerischen. Wir sehen daher auch, wie dasselbe, wovon die künstlerische Phantasie des Giotto Giotto lebte um 1266 bis 1337 - in einer späteren Zeit ergriffen ist, wie dasselbe der Tendenz, dem Impulse nach seelisch lebt in einem früheren Zeitpunkt in Franz von Assisi. Wir sehen in Franz von Assisi einen Menschen vor uns, welcher ganz und gar aus der äußeren Welt herauskam, aus jener Gestalt der äußeren Welt, die das Römertum unter den mannigfaltigsten Einflüssen allmählich angenommen hat. Franz von Assisi ist zunächst ganz auf das Äußerliche gerichtet, hat seine Freude an äußerem Glanz und Reichtum, hat seine Freude an all dem, was das Leben angenehm macht, was auch das persönliche Wohlgefühl erhöht, wird dann aber durch seine persönlichen Erlebnisse in seinem Seelenleben geradezu umgekehrt; eine physische Krankheit ist es zunächst, die ihn von dem Aufgehen in dem äußeren Leben ganz und gar auf das Innere richtet. Und wir sehen dann Franz von Assisi, einen Menschen, der in seiner Jugend ganz und gar auf das äußerliche Wohlleben gerichtet ist, auf äußeren Glanz sogar, auf äußeren Anstand — wir sehen ihn umkehren zu einem rein auf das innere Seelenleben gerichteten Empfinden. Aber so merkwürdig gestaltet sich das aus, daß Franz von Assisi der erste ist unter den großen Gestalten, die nun den Blick ganz abkehren von allem, was aus dem alten visionär-phantasievollen Leben heraus stammt. Er richtet den Blick vielmehr auf dasjenige, was unmittelbar auf der Erde wandelt, zunächst auf den Menschen. Dasjenige sucht Franz von Assisi im Menschen zu erfahren, was in der Menschenseele, im ganzen Menschen zu erleben ist, wenn man den Menschen nur auf sich selbst gestellt ansieht. Umgeben ist Franz von Assisi von den Weltbegebenheiten, die sich, ich möchte sagen auch so auf der Erde entwickelt haben, daß über das einzelne Leben des Menschen hinweggegangen wurde - [ähnlich] wie die Phantasie, die sich in früherer Kunst auslebte, hereinschauen ließ überirdische Wesenheiten in das menschliche Fühlen. Franz ist ja in seiner Jugend umgeben, und auch später, von dem welthistorischen Streite der Guelfen und Ghibellinen. Da wird, möchte man sagen, in großen Sphären um Impulse gekämpft, die über das, was der einzelne Mensch fühlt, was der einzelne Mensch erlebt, hinweggehen, welche die Menschen nur als große, herdenmäßige Masse auffassen. Und mitten in dieses Leben hinein machen nun Franz von Assisi und seine Genossen, die immer zahlreicher und zahlreicher werden, geltend das Recht der einzelnen menschlichen Individualität mit all dem, was im Inneren des Menschen an Zusammenhängen erlebt werden kann, gefühlsmäßig, erlebensmäßig eben, mit tieferen, jede einzelne Menschenseele durchseelenden, durchzuckenden, durchstrahlenden Mächten. Der Blick wird abgelenkt von dem sie umspannenden Kosmisch-Geistigen und wird gelenkt auf das einzelne Menschlich-Individu elle: Mitleid, Mitgefühl, Mitfühlen, Mitleben mit jeder einzelnen Menschenseele, Interesse haben für das, was jeder einzelne Mensch erlebt; absehen von Stand und Reichtum, die sozusagen als Glanz durchwoben haben, was man von der orientalischen Phantasie aus gestalten wollte auf dem Gebiete der Kunst, die man hereinstrahlen ließ aus dem Überirdischen ins Irdische - absehen von dem allem und hinblicken auf die Leiden und Freuden, die der arme Mensch auf der Erde erlebt! Jeder einzelne Mensch wird nun zur Hauptsache, jeder einzelne Mensch zu einer eigenen Welt; und so will man leben, daß jeder einzelne Mensch zu einer Welt wird. Das Ewige, das Unendliche, das Unsterbliche soll in der Menschenbrust selber aufgehen. Es soll nicht mehr als gleichsam die umspannende Sphäre über der Erde schweben.

Cimabues Bilder sind so, als ob sie aus den Wolken gesehen wären, als ob die Gestalten aus den Wolken hereinkämen in die Erde. Und so hatte man sich auch die geistige Welt gedacht, hatte man gefühlt; und heute hat man keine Vorstellung mehr davon, wie intensiv man mit diesem Überirdischen lebte. Daher macht man sich auch in der Regel keine besondere Vorstellung darüber, welch eine Änderung im Empfinden es war, als nun dieser Franz von Assisi das Leben des Westens verinnerlicht geltend machte. Und in seiner Seele, die also mitleben wollte mit dem, was der arme Mensch war, in der Seele, die den Menschen empfinden wollte gerade in seiner Armut, wenn er durch nichts beschwert war, aber auch durch nichts ihm ein Wert verliehen wurde als durch das, was er nur als Mensch war, dieser Franz von Assisi, der den Menschen so empfinden wollte, der den Christus aber auch so empfinden wollte, wie der Christus ist nur für diese armen Menschen, dieser Franz von Assisi entwickelt mitten aus dem Christentum heraus, aus diesem also gefühlten Christentum heraus ein wunderbares Natur-Fühlen. Alles wird für ihn zu Brüdern und Schwestern auf der Erde. Und nun entwickelt sich ein liebevolles Eingehen nicht nur auf das Menschenherz, nicht nur auf den einzelnen Menschen, sondern auf alle Geschöpfe der Natur. Und in dieser Beziehung ist Franz von Assisi wirklich Realist, Naturalist. Die Vögel sind seine Brüder und Schwestern; die Sterne, die Sonne, der Mond sind seine Geschwister; das Würmlein, das über die Erde kriecht, ist sein Geschwister. Alles betrachtet er mit liebevollem Anteil. Wenn er auf dem Wege geht, greift er das Würmlein auf und beseitigt es, damit es nicht zertreten werden soll. Die Lerche bewundert er, betrachtet sie als seine Schwester. Eine unendliche Innerlichkeit, ein Gedankenleben, das gar nicht denkbar ist in der früheren Zeit, macht Franz von Assisi geltend. Und darin hat man viel mehr das Charakteristikum dieses Franz von Assisi zu sehen, als in dem, was oftmals äußerlich von seinem Leben geschrieben wird.

So zieht, man möchte sagen verinnerlicht, der Blick auf das Irdische ein, und so lebt er sich in die Menschheit ein, und so bemächtigt er sich allmählich auch des künstlerischen Empfindens. Dante stellt noch gewissermaßen wie ein Letztes das Menschenleben unter dem Bilde überirdischer Mächte in seinem großen Gedichte hin. Giotto, sein Zeitgenosse und wohl auch sein Freund, stellt malerisch bereits das unmittelbare Interesse an dem, was auf der Erde webt und lebt, hin. Und so sehen wir hereinziehen mit Giottos Bildern die Nachbildung des Individuell-Natürlichen, die Nachbildung des IndividuellMenschlichen. Und kein Zufall ist es, daß die Malerei, die auf den Namen Giotto getauft ist in der oberen Kirche zu Assisi, daß diese sich gerade mit dem Leben des Franz von Assisi beschäftigt, denn ein tiefer innerer Seelenzusammenhang ist zwischen Giotto und Franz von Assisi. Franz von Assisi, das religiöse Genie, das aus dem inbrünstigen Seelenleben heraus das Mitfühlen mit dem Werden des Natürlichen auf der Erde geltend macht, und Giotto, der zunächst nachahmt, wie Franz von Assisi gefühlt hat, wie Franz von Assisi sich in die Geistigkeit, in das Seelische der Welt hineinstellt.

Und so sehen wir denn, daß von den starren Linien und von dem flächenhaft Gedachten des Cimabue die Strömung herüberführt zu Giotto, so daß wir Nachbildung des Natürlichen, Individuellen, Angeschautes und Wirklichkeit, Immer-mehr-und-mehr-im-Raume-drinnen-Stehendes, Nicht-aus-der-Flächeheraus-Sprechendes bei Giotto sehen.

Wir werden nun die Bilder Giottos zunächst auf unser Auge wirken lassen, der Reihe nach. Es wird sich zeigen, wie da das Verständnis für die individuelle Menschengestalt hereinkommt. Und gerade bei Giotto tritt dieses Verständnis um so mehr hervor, als er, wie Sie sehen werden, gerade Bilder aus der Heiligenlegende gibt und sich in diesen Bildern zeigt, wie er versucht, im äußeren Ausdruck das Innerlichste, das Seelischste wiederzugeben. Jetzt werden wir also der Reihe nach die Bilder des Giotto haben; diese Bilder werden gewöhnlich als die frühesten angesehen. Sie sehen die Tradition der früheren Zeit zwar noch darinnen, aber Sie sehen überall schon das Menschliche einziehen, so wie er es gekannt hat, in der Weise, wie ich es eben besprochen habe:

Giotto

8 Madonna mit Engeln

10 Die Darstellung im Tempel

11 Die Erscheinung des hl. Franz

12 Das Wunder des Quells

13 Die Armut

14 Die Auferweckung des Jünglings von Suessa

15 Die Beweinung des hl. Franz durch die Nonnen

So wird also allmählich das ganze Leben des Franz von Assisi von Giotto gemalt; und überall ist, ich möchte sagen bei Giotto künstlerisch ein ähnliches Fühlen wie bei Franz von Assisii selber; wenn man auch das Visionäre in diesen Bildern nimmt, überall sieht man, daß es sich darum handelt, dieses Visionäre mehr von innen heraus zu malen, so daß man das Sprechen der menschlichen Gefühle mehr sieht als bei Cimabue, wo es sich immer gehandelt hat um das Hereinschauen aus überirdischen Sphären. Und nirgends sieht man mehr etwas bloß Traditionelles in den Gesichtern, sondern man sieht: Derjenige, der das gemalt hat, hat sich die Gesichter bereits wirklich angeschaut.

16 Giotto Der Tod des hl. Franz

Sehen wir uns diese zwei letzten Bilder an. Wir werden unmittelbar erinnert durch die Innigkeit, die darinnen ist, an die schöne Tatsache, die ja aus dem Leben des Franz von Assisi bekannt ist, daß er, lange arbeitend, sein Lied auf die Natur geformt hat. In dem Liede auf die Natur, dem großen schönen Hymnus, spricht Franz von Assisi überall von seinen «Geschwistern» - von der Schwester Sonne, von dem Monde, von den übrigen Planeten, von den Erdenwesen; alles, was er in liebevoller realistischer Hingabe, seelisch realistischer Hingabe mit der Natur gefühlt hat, ist in wunderbarer Weise in diesen Hymnus zusammengenommen. Dieses unmittelbare Verbundensein mit der Erdennatur und dem, was in der Erdennatur lebt, das drückt sich besonders in einer Tatsache sehr schön aus: darinnen, daß die letzte Strophe erst in den allerletzten Lebenstagen des Franz von Assisi entstanden ist, und diese letzte Strophe ist gerichtet an den «Bruder Tod». Man sieht, Franz von Assisi konnte den Bruder Tod erst besingen in dem Augenblicke, als er selber auf dem Totenbette lag, in dem Augenblicke, da er seinen Brüdern die Aufforderung erteilte, sie sollen von den Freuden des Todes in seiner Umgebung singen, wo er sich fühlte aufgehend in die Welt, in die er aufgenommen werden sollte. Wie Franz von Assisi alles das, was ihn verband mit der Welt, unmittelbar nur aus dem realistischen Erdenleben heraus, aus dem gegenwärtigen Erleben heraus wiedergeben konnte und wiedergeben wollte, empfinden wollte, das zeigt sich in der Tatsache so schön, daß er, währenddem er alles übrige früher besang, den Tod erst besang, als er selber dem Tode nahe war. Das Letzte, was er diktiert hat, ist diese letzte Strophe dieses großen Lebenshymnus auf den Bruder Tod, wie der auf sich selbst gestellte Mensch sich Christus mit dem menschlichen Leben verbunden denkt. Ich glaube, man kann es nicht schöner sehen - zugleich verknüpft eben mit der durch Franz von Assisi schon hereinstrahlenden Anschauung des menschlichen Lebens, die ganz anders geworden war, als es in früheren Zeiten war — als aus einem solchen Bilde heraus, in dem man, ich möchte sagen unmittelbar sieht, wie Giotto in derselben Auffassungs-Aura lebt wie Franz von Assisi selber.

17 Giotto Joachim bei den Hirten

Das habe ich eingefügt als ein späteres Bild, damit Sie sehen, wie Giotto in seiner späteren Zeit mächtige Fortschritte gemacht hat. Sie sehen in dieser späteren Zeit das Menschliche noch mehr als einzelnes menschliches Individuelles aufgefaßt. In der Zeit, der die Bilder, die wir bisher gesehen haben, entnommen sind, sieht man, wie er, ich möchte sagen getragen ist von dem Impuls, der auch in Franz von Assisi lebte. Jetzt sehen wir Giotto mehr zu sich kommen, aus sich selber sprechen in einem solchen Bilde, das einer späteren Lebensepoche angehört. Wir kehren dann nachher wieder zurück zu Bildern, die sich anschließen an die Darstellungen des Franz von Assisi,

18 Giotto Die Heimsuchung

eben auch aus seiner späteren Zeit. Der Realismus ist bei ihm schon viel mehr durchgedrungen in dieser späteren Zeit.

19 Giotto Die Vermählung der Maria

21 Giotto Die Taufe Christi

Auch aus seiner späteren Zeit:

23 Giotto Die Gerechtigkeit

24 Giotto Die Ungerechtigkeit

An solchen Bildern sieht man, wie es damals nahelag, sich in Allegorien auszusprechen. Die Lebensverhältnisse ändern sich eben durchaus im Laufe der Jahrhunderte; und der große Umschwung, der eingetreten ist dadurch, daß das in Bildern lebende, das in Bildern vor sich gehende Leben der damaligen Zeit heute ein mehr in Vorstellungen, die durch Bücher mitgeteilt werden können, vor sich gehendes ist — dieser Umschwung ist auch ein sehr großer, viel mehr, als man das heute eigentlich würdigt. Und das Bedürfnis, sich allegorisch auszudrücken, war der damaligen Zeit besonders eigen. Und daß zugleich so schön verknüpft ist in diesen Bildern Realismus der Darstellung mit dem Bedürfnis, die Darstellung doch wie zu etwas zu machen, durch das man liest in der Welt, das ist besonders interessant.

22 Giotto Papst Innozenz III. bestätigt dem hl. Franz die Ordensregeln

Hier kommen wir wieder auf eine der Darstellungen zurück, die sich, wie man sagt, auf die frühere Kunst des Giotto bezieht, die eben ganz seinem immer weitergehenderen Einleben in die Fühlenswelt des Franz von Assisi entnommen ist.

25 Giotto Die Himmelfahrt Johannes des Evangelisten

26 Giotto Johannes der Evangelist auf Patmos

Sehr schön kommt da zur Anschauung, wie der Künstler darstellen will das innere Leben des Johannes, der aus seinem Gemüte erfaßt seinen Zusammenhang mit der geistigen Welt. Johannes also schreibend, oder wenigstens konzipierend die Apokalypse.

Giotto

27 Die Auferweckung des Lazarus 31 Noli me tangere

28 Die Flucht nach Ägypten 33 Die Dornenkrönung

29 Die Verkündigung an die hl. Anna 34 Das Abendmahl

30 Die Heimsuchung 8 Madonna mit Engeln

Wir werden jetzt, unmittelbar nach dieser «Madonna» von Giotto, einschalten ein Bild, das wir schon gesehen haben, eine «Madonna» von Cimabue noch einmal, damit Sie vergleichen können gerade an diesen beiden Bildern, welch kolossaler Unterschied in dieser ganzen Behandlung der Figur ist. Vergleichen Sie, wie hier (8) - trotzdem die Tradition noch wirkt in dem Blick, in dem Auge, in dem Munde, in der Auffassung des Jesuskindes -, vergleichen Sie den Realismus, der in diesem Bilde liegt, wo wir durchaus nachgebildete Menschen sehen, die von der Erde hinausschauen in die Welt, vergleichen Sie das mit dem Bilde von Cimabue,

8a Cimabue Madonna mit Engeln und Propheten, Teil von 1

wo wir etwas vor uns haben, in dem eine ins Traditionelle übersetzte ursprüngliche, visionäre Anschauung liegt, wo also eigentlich aus überirdischen Welten hereingeschaut wird in unsere Welt. Soviel auch in der Komposition erinnert an das Bild des Giotto, Sie sehen in der ganzen Linienführung den gewaltigen Unterschied, der da vorhanden ist.

37 Giotto Das Jüngste Gericht, Teil: Untere Gruppe der Seligen

38 Giotto Der Zorn

Also wiederum eines der allegorischen Bilder.

39 Giotto Die Beweinung Christi

Dieses Bild ist aus der Arenakapelle in Padua, wo Giotto noch einmal zurückgekommen ist auf die frühere Legende.

Es ist sehr interessant, dieses Bild zu vergleichen mit der «Beweinung», die wir früher gesehen haben. Das ältere Bild gehört einer frühen, dieses einer sehr späten Periode in Giottos Schaffen an. Wir wollen nun das ältere noch einmal betrachten, damit Sie den Fortschritt sehen:

15 Giotto Die Beweinung des hl. Franz durch die Nonnen

Daran sieht man also, wie er ganz dasselbe Motiv in kompositorischer Beziehung früher und wie er es viel später aufgefaßt hat. Es ist ja gewissermaßen, rein künstlerisch angesehen, dasselbe Bild noch einmal gemalt, aber sehr interessant [ist], wie viel freier [es ist], und wie viel mehr Fähigkeit, auf die einzelnen individuellen Dinge einzugehen, er im späteren Bilde erlangt hat.

41 Giotto Das Gastmahl des Herodes

42 Giotto Die Erscheinung des hl. Franz in Arles

Wieder ein Bild aus dem Leben des Franz, aber in Florenz, S. Croce. Giotto ist Ja dort noch einmal - wir haben zwei Bilder davon schon gesehen (16, 22) — zurückgekommen auf die Franziskus-Legende.

47 Giotto Die Namengebung für Johannes den Täufer

43 Giotto (Schule) Die Kirchenlehre

Hier und im folgenden Bilde haben wir nun das, was man gewöhnlich «Schule Giotto» nennt.

44-46 Andrea Buonaiuti (Schule Giotto) Das Kirchenregiment

Hier sehen Sie bereits jenes kompositorische Element auftreten, welches dann später in der Malerei die ungeheuer große Rolle spielt, wo eintritt ein ganz neues Innenleben, möchte man sagen. Man kann den Unterschied nun in der folgenden Weise bezeichnen:

Wenn wir zurückgehen würden auf die Entwickelung des Christentums bis zu Dante-Giotto herauf, so würden wir finden, daß das Christentum, so wie es gefühlt, wie es empfunden wird, Platonismus in sich hat, wobei ich nicht daran denke, Sie etwa verführen zu wollen zu glauben, daß es platonische Philosophie in sich hat, sondern Platonismus, das heißt ein Fühlen und ein Anschauen der Welt, wie es sich auch in der platonischen Philosophie ausgeprägt hat, wo in die überirdische Sphäre gesehen wird, aber nicht in dieses Sehen das hineingebracht wird, was vom menschlichen Verstande ausgeht. In der Zeit, die dann auf Giotto folgte, tritt immer mehr und mehr in das Fühlen etwas Theologisch-Aristotelisches — wiederum sage ich nicht etwa: die Philosophie des Aristoteles, sondern etwas Theologisch-Aristotelisches -, wo man versucht, in Übersichten, in einer Art Systematik die Welt zu sehen, wie Sie sie hier auf dem Bilde aufsteigen sehen: von einer Welt unten zu einer mittleren Welt, zu einer höchsten Welt. Das ganze Leben wird gewissermaßen aristotelisch durchsystematisiert. Und so dachte sich die spätere Kirche das menschliche Leben in die ganze Weltordnung hineingestellt. Die Zeiten waren also vorüber, aus denen noch Cimabue herausleuchtete, wo man gewissermaßen aus dem Visionären heraus Anschauungen hatte über eine überirdische Welt. Es stellten sich dann hinein die Zeiten des rein menschlichen Fühlens. Nun will man das rein menschliche Fühlen wiederum - und Jetzt mehr systematisch, ich möchte sagen: mehr verstandesmäßig hinaufführen zu dem höheren Leben, anknüpfen an das höhere Leben. Da tritt dann an die Stelle des aus dem Zentrum heraus schaffenden Früheren das kompositionelle Element. Und so sehen Sie diese Dreistufigkeit, wie man im System hinaufsteigt in höhere Welten von der Welt, die man so unten fühlt und erlebt. Wenn Sie sich das ansehen bei den Nachfahren des Giotto, so werden Sie unmittelbar im Vorgefühle das haben, was dann auftritt in der späteren Komposition. Denn wer könnte verkennen, daß derselbe Geist, der im Kompositorischen hier (46) drinnen waltet, uns zum Beispiel auch wiederum in ausgebildeterer, vollkommenerer Gestalt entgegentritt in dem Bilde, das unter dem Namen «Disputa» von Raffael bekannt ist!

In dem «Kirchenregiment» aus der Schule des Giotto sehen Sie nun wiederum, wie Vorgänge, geistige Zusammenhänge des irdischen Lebens durch das Zusammensein von Menschen dargestellt werden - derselbe Gedanke tritt bei dem oftmals «Die Schule von Athen» genannten Bilde von Raffael später zutage, ich meine rein künstlerisch -: Menschen werden zusammengestellt, um auszudrücken Zusammenhänge, die im irdischen Leben geltend sind. Wenn Sie dieses Bild,

45 Andrea Buonaiuti (Schule Giotto) Das Kirchenregiment, Teil: Gruppe links unten

ansehen, so bitte ich Sie, besonders zu beachten, daß auf diesem Bilde der Grundgedanke in einer einzigartigen Weise zum Ausdrucke kommt: hinten der mächtige Kirchenbau; dann in dem Bilde zum Ausdruck kommend die Macht, die ausgeht von den kirchlichen Würdenträgern und die sich hinergießt über die Welt des Volkes. Überall, wenn Sie den Ausdruck in den Gesichtern gerade bei diesen Bildern ins Auge fassen, werden Sie finden, daß das Künstlerische in den Dienst dieser großen Idee des über die Erde hinstrahlenden Kirchenregiments gestellt ist.

46 Andrea Buonaiuti (Schule Giotto) Das Kirchenregiment, Teil: Mittlere Gruppe rechts

Jedes einzelne Gesicht hier kann man studieren, und man wird finden, daß sich in ihm wunderbar, wie von einem Zentrum heraus ausstrahlend, zeigt, wie der Mensch Anteil nimmt an diesem Impuls, der vom Kirchenregiment aus durch alle Erdenseelen gehen soll. Die Physiognomien sind so, daß man sieht: es hat das Ganze ein Künstler gemacht, der durchdrungen war von diesem Gedanken des Kirchenregiments und der verstand, das, was das Kirchenregiment hineinbringt in die Antlitze, in diesen Antlitzen zum Ausdruck zu bringen. Wir sehen also das Kirchenregiment wiederum ausstrahlen von den Antlitzen. - Ich bitte, sich dieses ganz besonders anzusehen, weil wir später Bilder sehen werden, bei denen ganz und gar nicht dasselbe zum Ausdruck kommt, obwohl das kompositionelle Können, das aus einem solchen Gedanken heraus kommt und das so schön hier zum Ausdruck gekommen ist in der Anordnung und in dem Zusammenklang der Anordnung mit dem Ausdrucke, weil das später in etwas ganz anderes übergeht. Diejenigen, die sich später in dieselbe Kompositionsrichtung hineinfinden, die behalten den Grundimpuls der Komposition bei; aber es tritt, wie Sie sehen werden, ein ganz anderes Element auf.

Sie sehen unten (45) Hunde, nicht wahr, das sind die berühmten «Domini canes», die «Hunde des Herrn». Man nannte die Dominikaner im Zusammenhange mit ihrer Tätigkeit die «Hunde des Herrn». Fra Angelico bildete auch auf vielen Bildern die «Hunde des Herrn» ab:

49 Masolino Das Gastmahl des Herodes

Dieses Bild stammt aus dem Baptisterium zu Castiglione d’Olona.

Nun also kommen wir in der Entwickelung um ein Stück weiter. Wir können nun sagen: diese folgende Entwickelung ist eigentlich ausgegangen von dem Impuls, aufgebaut auf der Strömung, von welcher Giotto der große Anfänger ist. Nun geht davon eine doppelte Strömung aus. Wir sehen immer mehr und mehr sich emanzipieren, könnte man sagen, das realistische Element in der einen Strömung von dem spirituellen Element. Bei Giotto spielt überall, und auch bei den beiden Bildern, die wir zuletzt gesehen haben, spielt überall das Spirituelle hinein; denn dieser Impuls, der da als Kirchenregiment durch die Welt geht, ist Ja auch spirituell gedacht, und die einzelne, in die Komposition hineingestellte Figur ist durchaus so gefaßt, daß man sagen kann: Es lebte Giotto, so wie Franz von Assisi selber lebte, in einer spirituellen Welt, die nur durch die menschliche Seele realistisch auf das Irdische gerichtet war; so lebte auch Giotto und lebten seine Schüler, obwohl sie mit liebevoller Art die Dinge dieser Welt realistisch auffaßten, im Spirituellen drinnen und konnten das Spirituelle vereinigen mit der Auffassung des einzelnen Individuellen. Hier sehen wir nun, indem wir herüberkommen ins 14., 15. Jahrhundert, allmählich sich emanzipieren die Sehnsucht, nachzubilden das Individuell-Natürliche, und nicht mehr das Ganze so stark im Auge zu haben und daraus die einzelnen Figuren zu holen, was bei allen bisherigen Bildern der Fall ist, auch bei den Bildern, die Giotto und seine Schüler aus der biblischen Geschichte entnommen haben. Wir sehen, daß die einzelne Figur sich von diesem Grundimpuls loslöst, der gewissermaßen wie ein Zauberhauch über das ganze Bild gegangen ist, wir sehen alle Menschen immer einzeln dastehen, wenn sie auch zusammenkomponiert sind. Und so sehen wir zum Beispiel auch hier das prächtige Gebäude, und dann, wie der Künstler zweifellos schon bemüht ist, seine Figuren nicht in einen Grundgedanken hineinzustellen, in einen künstlerischen Grundgedanken, sondern die einzelnen Figuren als individuelle Menschen zu malen, als einzelne Individualitäten auszugestalten; wir sehen immer mehr und mehr Individualitäten auftreten, die einfach zusammengestellt werden; wenn auch gewiß die Komposition etwas Großes hat, sehen wir doch, wie sich das einzelne Individuelle naturalistisch emanzipiert von dem das ganze Bild durchstrahlenden Denken.

50 Masolino Die Taufe Christi

Also selbst bei einem solchen biblischen Bilde können Sie das vom Grundgedanken Emanzipierte des Ausdrucks in den einzelnen Figuren durchaus sehen. Hier kommt es viel mehr als bei den früheren Bildern darauf an, den Christus so zu gestalten, daß das Menschlich-Individuelle durch ihn zum Ausdrucke kommt, und ebenso bei den anderen Figuren, viel mehr als bei dem, was wir früher gesehen haben:

21 Giotto Die Taufe Christi

51 Filippino Lippi Die Vision des hl. Bernhard

Hier können Sie durchaus schon die Empfindung für das das ganze Bild überstrahlende Ganze verlieren. Dagegen sehen Sie gerade hier bei Filippino Lippi in wunderbarer Weise die Physiognomien ausgedrückt, sowohl der Mittelfigur selber — das Visionäre - als sogar bei den Nebenfiguren, wie überall das Menschliche in den Vordergrund tritt. Wir sehen eine Strömung ausgehen von der aus, auf der wir aufgebaut haben, die durchaus ins Realistische sich hineinarbeitet und sogar solche Dinge zu so wunderbarer innerer Vollendung bringt wie den Bernhard selber, der da diese Vision empfängt.

53 Masaccio Der Zinsgroschen

Hier sehen Sie sehr interessant das menschliche Fühlen fortschreiten. Wenn Sie diesen Masaccio ansehen, so werden Sie, ich möchte sagen Interesse haben können für jeden einzelnen Kopf, der sich da in den Jüngern des Christus herumgruppiert um den Christus selber. Und sehen Sie, wie der Christus nun bereits individualisiert ist. Denken Sie an den gewaltigen Fortschritt in der Charakterisierung, der da zwischen den Bildern, die wir früher gesehen haben und einem solchen liegt. Sehen Sie aber auch zugleich, wie das Fühlen, das jetzt übergegangen ist von dem früheren Fühlen, das ganz aufging in dem christlichen Weltbegriff, wie das Fühlen übergegangen ist zu dem römischen, zu dem neu aufgekommenen römischen Machtbegriffe. Fühlen Sie, wie in dieser Komposition in den Gestalten, in dem Ausdruck der einzelnen Gestalten, der individuellen Gestalten, der römische Machtbegriff zum Ausdruck kommt. Früher sahen Sie das Kirchenregiment als ein Spirituelles über das Bild ausgegossen,

44-46 Andrea Buonaiuti (Schule Giotto) Das Kirchenregiment

jetzt sehen Sie in diesem (53) zum größten Teil vorzüglich individualisierte Gestalten, Menschen, die Macht haben wollen und die sich zur Macht zusammenschließen, während Sie früher etwas Spirituelles sahen, das durch die Gesichter gleichsam wie ein Blitz strahlte. Das Einzelne war zu begreifen aus dem Ganzen. Hier können wir das ganze Leben zusammenfassen nur aus dem, was an Vollendung, man möchte sagen: an innerer Machtentfaltung im einzelnen Menschen liegt. Trotz der Größe dieser Komposition sehen wir, wie die Gestalten sich um den Mächtigen, den allerdings durch seine Geistigkeit mächtigen Christus herumgruppieren, wie aber in diesen Menschen selber zum Ausdruck gekommen ist: Wir sind zwar in einem Reich, das nicht von dieser Welt ist, das aber diese Welt beherrscht - durch die Menschen, nicht durch die Geistigkeit, ja sich [sogar] durch diese Menschen ausdrückt. So sehen wir, wie sich das Menschliche, das Realistische immer mehr und mehr emanzipiert und wie man immer fähiger wird, das Individuelle darzustellen. Es wird zum Beispiel die Heiligenlegende nicht um ihretwillen dargestellt; sondern die Heiligenlegende lebt fort, man benützt sie, um - an diese bekannten Geschichten als an eine Grundlage anknüpfend - den Menschen darzustellen.

54 Masaccio Die Vertreibung von Adam und Eva aus dem Paradiese

Hier sehen Sie schon völlig den Blick gewissermaßen gerichtet nicht auf die große biblische Erzählung, sondern den Blick gerichtet darauf: wie sehen Menschen aus, die das erlebt haben, was Adam und Eva erlebt haben? —- Und das ist allerdings künstlerisch in einer großartigen Weise beantwortet - für die damalige Zeit, selbstverständlich.

58 Domenico Ghirlandajo (?) Bildnis des Francesco Sassetti und Sohn

Ich brauche kaum dazu zu sagen, daß wir jetzt bereits bei Ghirlandajo in einer Zeit sind, in welcher die Fähigkeit, den Menschen als Menschen darzustellen, wie er durch das Rein-Menschliche lebt, auf eine hohe Stufe heraufgestiegen ist.

57 Domenico Ghirlandajo Das Abendmahl

Wir nähern uns der Zeit, wo das Abendmahl nicht mehr allein dargestellt wird, wie Sie es auf einem früheren Bilde

34 Giotto Das Abendmahl

sehen konnten, damit der Blick des Menschen, der auf dieses Abendmahl fällt, in sich rege macht, was durch dieses Abendmahl geschehen ist, sondern die Geschichte vom Abendmahl wird genommen, um das Menschliche darzustellen. Man kann bereits beginnen, wenn das auch hier noch nicht ausgedrückt ist wie bei den späteren Abendmahlsbildern, die Physiognomien der einzelnen Jünger zu studieren, wie das Menschliche wirkt unter dem Eindrucke, der in der Seele ausgelöst wird. Eine vollständige Umänderung des ganzen künstlerischen Gedankens kann man gerade an solchen Bildern sehen.

48 Luca Signorelli Die Predigt des Antichrist

Auch über dieses Bild wäre genau dasselbe zu sagen, wie über die eben gesehenen.

59 Andrea Mantegna Madonna della Vittoria

Das Problem der Madonna wird also jetzt zu dem, wovon man sagen kann, daß es sich dem Künstler viel mehr handelt um die Darstellung des Weiblichen in der Madonna als um die Darstellung der heiligen Tatsache. Die Heiligenlegende lebt fort und wird, weil sie etwas Bekanntes ist, benützt, um realistisch-künstlerische Fragen zu lösen und das Menschliche individuell herauszugestalten.

60 Andrea Mantegna Der hl. Sebastian 61 Der Parnaß

Nun wird bei diesen Künstlern — das könnte gerade an diesem Bilde anschaulich gemacht werden - wirklich das Menschliche schon so stark realistisch, daß man nicht mehr eine solche Notwendigkeit fühlt, daß gerade die Heiligenlegende genommen wird. Bei den Giotto-Bildern kann man sich kaum vorstellen, daß etwas Unchristliches hineinspielt. Dagegen als die christliche Legende die Gestalt angenommen hatte, daß sie gleichsam nur die Gelegenheit war, das Menschliche darzustellen, da beginnt die Fähigkeit, dieses Menschliche nun selbst von der christlichen Legende zu emanzipieren. Und wir sehen schon das Hineinwachsen in das sich vom Christentum emanzipierende Renaissancemäßige.

63 Fra Angelico Die Kreuzabnahme

Nun kommen wir also, nachdem wir nun mit einigen Bildern gewissermaßen durchwandert haben die realistische Richtung, die das individuelle Auffassen des Menschlichen, das Sich-Emanzipieren des Irdisch-rein-Menschlichen von der übersinnlichen Sphäre mehr geistig darstellt, kommen wir zu einer anderen Strömung, die einen großen Vertreter in Fra Angelico hat. Wir sehen bei ihm eine, ich möchte sagen seelischere Strömung. Während das, was wir bisher sich entwickeln sahen, mehr vom Geiste ergriffen ist, sehen wir bei Fra Angelico das Gemüt, das Seelische den Versuch machen, in den Menschen einzudringen. Und es ist interessant zu sehen, wie dieser Künstler in seinen so wunderbaren liebenswürdigen Bildern von einer ganz anderen Seite her in derselben Weise dem Auffassen des Individuellen sich zu nähern versucht — durchaus viel seelischer. Das liegt auch in der eigentümlichen, hier ja nicht wiederzugebenden Farbengebung des Fra Angelico - alles eben mehr aus der Min

Seele herausgefühlt bei ihm, während aus dem das Naturgemäße nachschaffenden Geiste bei der anderen, bei der realistischen Strömung zum Ausdruck gekommen ist, was da als Emanzipation auftritt.

64 Fra Angelico Die Kreuzigung

Es zieht gewissermaßen auf dem Umweg der Seele das Seelische des Christentums durch Fra Angelico jetzt ein. Und das ist das Interessante gerade an der Erscheinung des Fra Angelico. Wir sehen, daß früher ein ÜbersinnlichGeistiges die Entwickelung des Christentums durchzogen hat und auch die Kunst ergriffen hat; wir sehen dann, wie der Mensch hingewiesen wird auf die Natur, darauf hingewiesen wird auf dem Umwege durch das Seelische, und wie dieselben Impulse, die nur als religiöser Enthusiasmus in Franziskus von Assisi lebten, wie die sich auslebten zuerst in Giotto, wie aber das Schauen immer mehr und mehr nach dem äußeren Naturalismus getrieben wird und wie gewissermaßen das Innenleben gegenüber dem Realismus jetzt in das Seelische sich rettet, das wiederum mehr auf ein Verwischen der Individualität hinarbeitet, aber um so mehr darauf hinarbeiitet, sich auch äußerlich als Seelisches zum Ausdruck zu bringen; denn Seelisches waltet und strahlt aus allen Einzelheiten bei Fra Angelico. Es flüchtet sich das Seelische des Christentums in diese Bilder des Fra Angelico hinein, die ja überall so verbreitet sind - sich am schönsten allerdings im Dominikanerkloster San Marco in Florenz finden. Wir sehen, daß der Geist, der da waltet beim Anschauen des Übersinnlichen, daß dieser Geist sich ausgoß in das Anschauen des Natürlichen. Die Seele flüchtete sich in diese Kunstrichtung hinein, die versuchte, weniger dem Ausdruck aufgeprägte Physiognomie, dem Ausdruck aufgeprägten Geist zu erfassen als das Seelische, das durch den Ausdruck herauswirkt.

65 Fra Angelico Das Abendmahl

Wenn Sie sich erinnern an das frühere «Abendmahl», das wir gesehen haben,

57 Domenico Ghirlandajo Das Abendmahl

wo es wirklich auf die Beantwortung der Frage ankam: wie wirkt die Natur geistig — wie prägt die Natur von außen den Menschen das auf, was sie erleben bei einem bestimmten Ereignis? —, sehen Sie, wie hier die Gestalten alle auf ein Empfinden hin konzentriert sind und wie sich aber dennoch dieses eine Seelisch-Individuelle in den einzelnen Gestalten auslebt. Hier (65) lebt Seele auf seelische Art. In dem früheren Bilde (57) lebte Geist, auf naturalistische Weise zum Ausdruck kommend. Bis auf die Linienführung können Sie es hier (65) sehen; sehen Sie nur die wunderbare, sanfte Linienführung und vergleichen Sie sie mit der Linienführung bei dem früheren «Abendmahl»!

67 Fra Angelico Die Krönung der Maria

Welcher Zauberhauch von Seelenhaftigkeit ist über dieses Bild ausgegossen!

68-69 Fra Angelico Das Jüngste Gericht 70 Sandro Botticelli Bildnis eines jungen Mädchens

Nun ist es interessant, daß, ich möchte sagen auf ganz andere künstlerische Vorwürfe übergeht derselbe Impuls, den man bei Fra Angelico findet, bei Botticelli. Botticelli ist in gewisser Beziehung auch durchaus ein Maler des Seelischen; aber er emanzipiert wiederum im Seelischen nach dem Naturalistischen hin das Menschliche von dem religiösen Gesamt-Seelenempfinden, das sich bei Fra Angelico auslebt.

Vergleichen Sie einen solchen Kopf mit dem von Ghirlandajo, den wir früher gesehen haben,

58 Domenico Ghirlandajo (?) Bildnis des Francesco Sassetti und Sohn

so werden Sie sehen, wie dort das Geistige zum Ausdruck kommt auf naturalistische Weise — wie hier (70) ungeheuer viel Seelisches bis auf die Linienführung da ist.

71 Sandro Botticelli Die Anbetung der Könige

72 Sandro Botticelli Die Beweinung Christi

73 Sandro Botticelli Madonna mit Engeln, «Magnificat»

Wir haben also jetzt eine Reihe von Botticellis angereiht an Fra Angelico, um damit den Fortschritt im Malen des Seelischen auf uns wirken zu lassen im Gegensatz zu dem Geist, den wir bei Masaccio, bei Ghirlandajo gefunden haben. Das sind die beiden Richtungen, die sich angeschlossen haben an die Impulse, die von Giotto ausgegangen sind, die dann über Ghiberti und Donatello auf anderem Gebiete eben herübergekommen sind zu diesen Malern.

Und nun kommen wir in dem Fortschreiten der Entwickelung aus diesen Voraussetzungen heraus zu den großen Malern der Renaissance, von denen wir noch einige Bilder auf uns wirken lassen. Wenn wir solch ein Bild wie dieses hier (70) vor uns haben, so sehen wir, wie, ich möchte sagen in dieser Zeit vom 14. ins 15. Jahrhundert herüber, dann ins 16. Jahrhundert, in einer ganz außerordentlich intensiven Art geschritten worden ist von der Darstellung des Geistig-Angeschauten, des als Ganzes Geistig-Angeschauten, zu dem Menschlichen. Wir sehen bei solchen Malern wie Ghirlandajo das Geistige in die Natur einbezogen, zu einer hohen Stufe gebracht im Ausdruck, im Ausdrücken; wir sehen hier (70) das Seelische bis in die Linienführung hinein in einer anderen Strömung zum Ausdruck kommen. Wir sehen gewissermaßen, wie im Verlaufe der Zeit die Erkenntnis der menschlichen Gestalt, des menschlichen Ausdruckes von den Menschen erobert wird, wie vom Himmel aus die Erde in dieser Zeit erobert wird. Wir sehen dann, wie immer mehr und mehr, ich möchte sagen in den Hintergrund tritt jene Vertiefung, die durch das christliche Prinzip eingetreten ist, und wie der Mensch nun in einer tieferen Weise als solcher verstanden werden sollte, indem man das Himmlische wie einen Weg betrachtete, um fortzuschreiten, um das menschliche Innere, wie es sich ausdrückt, wie es sich durchprägt im menschlichen Äußeren und in dem, was sich an das menschliche Äußere im menschlichen Zusammenleben anschließt, um das zum Ausdruck zu bringen. Die Eroberung des Menschlichen auf den verschiedensten Wegen — das ist es doch eigentlich, was uns hier so wunderbar entgegentritt.

Die Vereinigung von alledem sehen wir dann bei den großen Künstlern, bei Lionardo, bei Michelangelo, bei Raffael. Wir werden nun einige Bilder von Lionardo auf uns wirken lassen, um zu sehen, wie bei ihm eine Vereinigung, eine Synthesis dieser verschiedenen Versuche, die uns auf den anderen Bildern entgegengetreten [ist], vorhanden ist. Ein Zusammenwirken des Geistigen mit dem Seelischen tritt in hohem Grade nun bei Lionardo ein bis in die Linienführung, in die Komposition und in den Ausdruck.

87 Lionardo da Vinci, Kopie von Francesco Melzi Karikaturen (Venedig)

Als erstes Bild eine Skizze, Zeichnung von Lionardo, aus der Sie sehen können, wie er bemüht war, nun ganz realistisch den Menschen zu studieren, aber in einer Zeit, in der auf den Künstler gewirkt hat alles dasjenige, was sich die früheren Zeiten erobert haben. Das ist gerade das Charakteristische bei Lionardo, daß er gewissermaßen in radikaler Art auf die Ausdrucksfähigkeit des Menschen geht. Davon ist das ein charakteristisches Bild, wie er den ganzen Menschen zu erfassen sucht und herauszugestalten versucht, herauszubringen versucht in der Zeichnung. Er sucht sich zur höchsten Ausdrucksfähigkeit zu steigern, indem er die Stimmungen des Menschen festhält, studiert. Das alles ist nur möglich geworden als Blüte einer Kunstepoche, der die Dinge vorausgegangen sind, die wir betrachtet haben: sowohl die geistige, wie die seelische Durchdringung des Menschen.

95 Lionardo da Vinci Madonna Litta

Lionardos «Madonna Litta» in der Eremitage. Und Sie sehen, wie gesagt, alles da vereinigt, was früher auf getrennten Wegen gesucht worden ist.

100 Kopie nach Lionardo Apostelköpfe: Judas und Petrus, Karton

Das sind also Apostelköpfe von dem berühmten Bilde in Mailand, von dem Abendmahl, das ja heute kaum mehr zu sehen ist, von dem nur noch Farbflecken vorhanden sind und das zeigt, wie gerade in dieser großen Zeit der Kunstentwickelung die Heiligenlegende eben nur die Grundlage geboten hat zur Ausgestaltung menschlicher Charaktere. Gerade Lionardo sehen wir ja in seinem «Abendmahl»

99 Lionardo da Vinci Das Abendmahl

die einzelnen menschlichen Charaktere studieren; und wir sehen ihn lange, lange gerade an diesem wunderbaren Bilde arbeiten, weil er die menschlichen Charaktere im einzelnen studieren wollte. Wir wissen ja, daß er seine Auftraggeber, die geistlichen Würdenträger, vielfach enttäuschte, weil er zum Beispiel den Judas nach langem Arbeiten nicht fertigbrachte; und als ihn der Abt, der geistliche Würdenträger, dann ganz besonders drängte, das Bild fertigzumachen, da sagte er, er habe das Bild bisher nicht fertigmachen können, weil ihm das Modell zum Judas fehle; aber wenn er den Abt, der ihn da drängte, so anschaue, so könne der ja zum Judas sitzen - er würde ein vorzügliches Modell abgeben können.

Kopien nach dem «Abendmahl» von Lionardo da Vinci: Apostelköpfe (Kartons)

101 Johannes 105 Jakobus d. J.

102 Thomas und Jakobus d. Ä. 106 Andreas

103 Philippus 107 Matthäus

104 Bartholomäus

86 Lionardo da Vinci Selbstbildnis (Turin)

Ein «Selbstbildnis» — als solches wird es wenigstens angesehen.

118 Lionardo da Vinci Der hl. Hieronymus

116 Lionardo da Vinci Die Anbetung der Könige

74 Pietro Perugino Die Kreuzigung

Nun kommen wir in dieser klassischen Zeit selber weiter. Dieses Bild von Perugino, dem Lehrer Raffaels, bitte ich Sie, daraufhin zu betrachten, wie nun wirklich die Raffaelische Kunst herauswächst aus Vorgängern. Gerade bei Perugino haben wir zu sehen, wiederum, ich möchte sagen ein neues Element auftreten: tiefe Religiosität, die sich nun in das Kompositionelle hereinzubringen versucht und die sich verbindet mit einer gewissen architektonisch wirkenden Phantasie, worauf ja dann vielfach die Größe Raffaels gerade beruht.

75 Pietro Perugino «Lo Sposalizio»

75a Raffael «Lo Sposalizio»

Wenn Sie sich die beiden Bilder ansehen, so sehen Sie das eine förmlich aus dem anderen herauswachsen, und Sie sehen, wie Raffael zu seiner Größe kommt von seinem Lehrer ausgehend; Sie sehen, wie Raffael dadurch, daß er aufnimmt die reifste Frucht der verschiedenen Strömungen, die wir kennengelernt haben, Geist und Seele in seine Bilder hineinbringt und das vereinigt mit jenem Kompositionselemente, das ihm aus seiner speziellen Schule gekommen ist.

78 Pietro Perugino Die Vision des hl. Bernhard

Sie erinnern sich, daß wir früher auch eine «Vision des Heiligen Bernhard» gesehen haben:

51 Filippino Lippi Die Vision des hl. Bernhard

Bedenken Sie den großen Unterschied, wie hier (78) das Kompositionelle so ungemein in den Vordergrund tritt, während wir früher (51) den Versuch gesehen haben, den Geist wirksam zu haben in dem, was auf das Bild gebracht wird, was im Bilde gegeben wird. Hier (78) sehen wir, wie das Kompositionelle zum Ausdruck gemacht wird desjenigen, was als Vorwurf dem Bilde zwar zugrunde gelegt wird, aber nicht eigentlich das ganze Bild durchdringen kann. Perugino ist nicht in der Lage, das Kompositionelle so zu vertiefen, daß Seele wirklich herauskommt; aber wir sehen, wie das Kompositionelle in dieser Strömung besonders hereinkommt.

77 Pietro Perugino Die Schlüsselübergabe

Also von dieser Seite her, durch die Raffael beeinflußt war, sehen wir das kompositionelle Element hereindringen. Bei Raffael werden Sie ja finden, daß dieses kompositionelle Element eine große Rolle spielt. Wir können nicht bei den früheren Kompositionen, die wir gesehen haben, in dieser Weise von dem kompositionellen Elemente sprechen wie hier. Das Kompositionelle war früher da als eine Folge eines Ganzen; man empfand mehr das Ganze als einen Organismus. Der Mensch ist auch komponiert; aber man kann nicht sagen, obwohl er komponiert ist aus Kopf, Armen, Beinen und so weiter, daß das eine Komposition ist, sondern beim Menschen ist alles aus einem Mittelpunkt heraus; und die Komposition beim Menschen aus Armen und Beinen, Kopf und Rumpf, die empfindet man als selbstverständliches Ganzes. Hier in diesem Bilde empfindet man es nicht als selbstverständliches Ganzes, sondern Sie empfinden eben das Komponierte. Die frühere Komposition finden Sie viel mehr ausgeflossen aus einer Einheit. Hier sehen Sie das Ganze zusammengestellt, so daß es wirklich komponiert ist.

Wir sehen also von dem 13., 14., 15. Jahrhundert ausgehend eine Strömung, die durch den Geist die Natur erobern will, die zu einer höheren Stufe des Realismus führt. Wir sehen dann eine Strömung, die von der Seele aus die Natur erobern will. Und dann sehen wir dazu kommen von Östitalien herüber, von Mittel- und Ostitalien, in denen Raffael seine Heimat hat und Raffaels Vorgänger, das kompositionelle Element, das aus dem Einzelnen ins Ganze arbeitet, währenddem doch alle früheren Strömungen noch einen Nachklang hatten des Arbeitens vom Ganzen ins Einzelne, was Sie besonders stark sehen konnten auch bei einer Komposition wie dieser, wo dargestellt wurde das Ausströmen des geistlichen Kirchenregiments in die Welt,

44 Andrea Buonaiuti (Schule Giotto) Das Kirchenregiment

wo alles aus einer Einheit heraus ist, wo nichts aus den Einzelheiten zusammengebaut ist wie hier (77).

220 Raffael Papst Julius I. 221 Papst LeoX.

Nun sehen wir, wie sich das geistige Element in Raffael, in Raffaels Seele hineinfindet, die Errungenschaft des geistigen Elementes, wie es zum Naturalismus wird.

80 Francesco Traini Der Triumph des Todes

Das Bild ist hier eingefügt aus dem Grunde, damit Sie sehen, wie das allegorische Element nachgewirkt hat. Ich habe früher aufmerksam gemacht darauf, wie bei Giotto das allegorische Element eingreift. Dieses allegorische Element wirkt auch weiter mit; und das ist nun das, was mehr oder weniger zurückbleibt von der früheren, mehr geistig-spirituellen Auffassung. Es bleibt etwas zurück, was abstrakte Allegorie ist, insbesondere in den in vieler Beziehung grandiosen Bildern des Camposanto von Pisa sich findet. Es gehört der früheren Zeit an; aber ich wollte dieses allegorische Element zeigen als etwas, was noch nachwirkt, auch später. So daß also in dem Empfinden der Menschen lebt: Geistiges, geistig naturalisiert, seelisch naturalisiert; Nicht-mehr-Erfassenkönnen des Ganzen, sondern Kompositionelles; und das Allegorische wirkt noch nach. — Eine weitere Allegorie aus diesem Bild vom Camposanto:

Francesco Traini: Der Triumph des Todes

84 Teil: Fröhliche Gesellschaft

81 Teil: Jagdzug

Aus dem gleichen Bild:

82 Teil: Bettlergruppe

83 Teil: Fliegender Dämon

79 Francesco Traini Der hl. Thomas von Aquino

Nun sehen Sie hier, wie eine Nachwirkung des Allegorischen zunächst in diesem Bilde liegt; denn dargestellt werden sollte die Wirkung der scholastischen Lehre; die Wirkung der scholastischen Lehre auf der einen Seite herunter auf die Erde bis zur Überwindung des Irrglaubens, auf der anderen Seite hinauf bis in die himmlischen Regionen, wo dasjenige, was auf Erden lebt, einstrahlt bis zu den heiligen Vorgängen. Wir sehen also dasjenige, was auf Erden wirkt, wirksam gedacht ist, was gewissermaßen in der geistigen Erdensubstanz drinnen wirksam war, das sehen wir durch eine Allegorie, die aber nun der Wirklichkeit selber entnommen ist, ausgedrückt. Wir sehen in diesem Bilde also dieses Ihnen zuletzt genannte allegorische Element zum Ausgangspunkt genommen, aber nicht, um allein Allegorie auszudrücken, sondern nur auf eine allegorische Weise etwas, was man als absolut so, wie es dargestellt wird, real wirksam dachte.

Nun haben wir also versucht zu zeigen, wie die verschiedenen Strömungen — ich wiederhole sie noch einmal: den Geist, der in den Naturalismus hineingestrebt hat; das Seelische, das in seiner Ausdrucksfähigkeit auch immer realistischer und realistischer geworden ist, indem man immer mehr fähig wurde, das Seelische zum Ausdruck zu bringen im äußeren Ausdrukke; das Kompositionelle, das gewissermaßen Einzelheiten zusammenstellt, um in der Zusammenstellung geistig zu wirken; und das Allegorische — wie diese sich als Einzelimpulse geltend machen. Und auf diese Weise baute sich auf dasjenige, was dann eigentlich in den großen Schöpfungen von Michelangelo und von Raffael und deren Nachfolgern zum Ausdruck gekommen ist. Wir sehen durchaus ein Geistiges auf verschiedenen Wegen durch den Menschen gehen und sich das Natürliche erobern wollen. Wir sehen, wie der Geist zuerst bestrebt ist, das am Menschen zu erobern, was durch den Menschengeist im Menschen Ausdruck wird, wie dadurch wirklich geistige Anschauung immer mehr und mehr in die Auffassung der Natur hineinkommt. Wir sehen dann, wie bei solchen Künstlern wie Fra Angelico, Botticelli, wie Seele hineinkommt; wir sehen dann, wie versucht wird in der Zeit, als man nicht mehr aus der Vision heraus die Komposition als etwas Selbstverständliches gegeben hat, aus der Zusammenstellung der einzelnen Kompositionsversuche, durch die der Geist wieder wirken soll, zu schaffen, was ja Raffael zu solcher Höhe gebracht hat. Wir sehen, wie der Wunsch, das Weltengeschehen sprechen zu lassen, zur Allegorie geführt hat; wie die Allegorie wiederum im Grunde in den Realismus hineinführt, wie Sie an diesem Bilde hier sehen können (79), was ja dann auch - ich bitte Sie, nur an solche Kompositionen zu denken wie die Komposition der «Heiligen Cäcilie» in Bologna - bei Raffael wiederum zur selbstverständlichen Geistigkeit geworden ist:

196 Raffael Die hl. Cäcilie

Bei dem Bilde des Traini (79) sehen wir noch den Versuch gemacht, eine Hauptfigur hinzustellen so, daß sich das Allegorische aufdrängt und im Aufdrängen des Allegorischen versucht wird, das Seelenleben des Menschen im Zusammenhang mit der ganzen Welt darzustellen. Bei der «Heiligen Cäcilie» von Raffael (196) sehen wir dann, wie auch eine Hauptgestalt in der Mitte steht, wie aber alles bereits so weit gebracht ist, daß das Allegorische dort vollständig überwunden ist, daß das Allegorische ausgelöscht ist und die Leute sogar sich heute streiten können, was durch die heilige Cäcilie zum Ausdruck gekommen sein soll, trotzdem sie bloß im Kalender nachzulesen brauchten, um festzustellen, wie dieses Bild in Anlehnung an den Cäcilientag gemacht worden ist; dann würde man finden, wie in der Heiligenlegende alles das darinnen liegt, was Raffael in diesem wunderbaren Bilde geschaffen hat, aber wie er so stark das Gestaltete der Natur, die Fähigkeit der Natur, das Seelische und Geistige auszudrücken, erreicht hatte, daß man gar nicht mehr merkt, was eigentlich als Allegorie dahinter steckt. Und das ist das Große an dieser Zeit, die beherrscht worden ist durch Michelangelo und durch Raffael, daß die früheren Strömungen, denen man ansieht, aus welchen Impulsen sie stammen, daß diese Strömungen vollständig überwunden sind, und daß wirklich ein reines unbefangenes - für jene Zeit reines unbefangenes Anschauen und Wiedergeben der uns umgebenden Wirklichkeit nach natürlichem materiellem Gehalt, nach Seele und Geist, erreicht worden ist.

Man sieht in dem, was diese auf den heute studierten Vorgängen beruhende Zeit hervorgebracht hat, man sieht es an diesen Bildern, an diesen Schöpfungen gerade, daß solchen Leistungen Entwickelungen vorangehen müssen, die erst dazu führen, vom Geiste ausgehend, den Geist auch in der Außenwelt zu erkennen. Man muß erst den Geist suchen, dann findet man den Geist in der Außenwelt; man muß erst die Seele erleben, dann findet man die Seele in der Außenwelt; man muß erst Seele und Geist zusammen erleben können als solche, dann findet man sie auch in der äußeren Natur.

Deshalb sehen wir, wie nachwirkte das Geistige, das noch bei Cimabue gewirkt hat, in Giotto — wie Giotto es hinausträgt in die Natur, um die Form der Natur dadurch zu begreifen. Wir sehen, wie dann wiederum das, was von Giotto weiterstrahlt an Geistigem, von den Nachfolgern noch mehr verwendet wird, um den Geist der Natur zu verstehen. Wir sehen, wie das, was durch Franz von Assisi hereingekommen ist an Seelischem, an Erfassen des Seelischen im Menschen, durch die christliche Frömmigkeit künstlerisch zum Ausdruck kommt auf einer gewissen Höhe bei Fra Angelico - wie das wiederum hinausstrahlt und das Wesentliche ergreift bei Botticelli. Wir sehen, wie, ich möchte sagen aus einer Erinnerung heraus versucht wird, das Einzelne zum Ganzen - aus dem manches heraus sich entwickelt hat, das einem aber abhanden gekommen ist -, das Einzelne zum Ganzen zusammenzustellen, damit im Ganzen wieder der Geist wirkt, den man auf dem Wege in unmittelbarem Anschauen verloren hat - um ihn in seiner Arbeit beim Erfassen der Natur verwenden zu können. Man sieht, wie der Ausdruck, wie die Allegorie gesucht worden ist, wie aber dieses Suchen dazu geführt hat, mit Überwindung der Allegorie in der Natur selbst den Ausdruck zu finden, den die bloße Anschauung, die unbefangene Anschauung der Außenwelt dem gibt, der sie eben zuerst gesucht hat. Die Natur ist allegorisch; aber sie läßt die Allegorie nirgends unmittelbar aufdringlich erkennen. Der Mensch muß vielfach das, was in der Natur zu lesen ist, lernen, indem er erst in gewisser Beziehung ungeschickt lesen lernt. Bei solch einem Künstler wie dem, den wir im Bilde des Traini (79) vor uns haben, haben wir noch ein ungeschicktes Lesen der Natur. Bei Raffaels «Heiliger Cäcilie» (196) haben wir bereits ein solches Lesen vor uns, daß nichts mehr von Allegorie darinnen ist, von dem Strohernen, das die Allegorie überhaupt hat, die noch nicht zu der vollen Höhe der Kunst gekommen ist.

So ist, denke ich, durch diesen Vortrag uns möglich gewesen, eine Anschauung darüber zu gewinnen, wie allmählich die große Kunstepoche der italienischen Renaissance sich herausgebildet hat. Immer wieder, meine ich, wird der Blick der Menschen gerade auf diese Zeiten und auf diese Kunstentwickelung fallen, weil sie uns so tief hineinblicken läßt, diese Zeit, in das Wirken und Leben von Frömmigkeit, von Weisheit, von Liebe in der menschlichen Seele mit künstlerischer Phantasie und mit dem Streben, durch die künstlerische Phantasie unbefangen die Natur nachzuschaffen. In der bloßen Nachahmung der Natur liegt es nicht, sondern es liegt in der Fähigkeit des Menschen, mit dem, was er in der Seele selber gefunden hat, dasjenige in der Natur wiederzufinden, was in der Natur schon ist als dem innersten Erleben der menschlichen Seele Verwandtes. Das, denke ich, konnte durch die heutigen Darstellungen, wenn auch nur in episodischer und mangelhafter Weise, zum Ausdrucke gebracht werden.

1. Cimabue, Giotto, and Other Italian Masters

The transformation of human consciousness in the art of the gradually emerging Italian Renaissance during the transition from the fourth to the fifth post-Atlantean period:

We will present a series of reproductions, photographs from an artistic period that the human mind will probably always return to, because it is precisely in the development of this period that we see human conditions in relation to art being lived out in a way that is among the most profound we can observe in the external course of human history, if we regard this human history as a reflection of inner spiritual impulses.

First, you will see some paintings by Cimabue. Under the name Cimabue, there are — or rather, there were — a number of paintings, a large number, one must assume, church paintings, which originate from a worldview, a conception of the world, that is completely removed from our own, from our present-day worldview. Cimabue—or rather, those who worked in the spirit of that school of painting known by the name of Cimabue—Cimabue, that is, painted at about the time when Dante was born. What lies before this time in terms of the development of art is shrouded in considerable obscurity from an external historical perspective. In what has been preserved, Cimabue's achievement appears in such a way that one can say that, from a historical point of view, there is no predecessor in the West. But from what we will continue to present today, you will also see that Cimabue's style found no successor in the development of European art.

If we want to empathize with what we encounter in Cimabue, we are rather led to influences that come from the Orient, and I would like to briefly characterize a long history, so to speak. Of course, such a brief characterization includes all the inaccuracies that are associated with a brief characterization. We must not forget that the period in which Christianity arose, and the centuries that followed until the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, at the start of which Cimabue was painting, was a time of gradual assimilation of Christianity into all areas of human activity, a turning of human intellectual abilities, one might say, toward the supernatural, the spiritual-cosmic. And all human consciousness was initially directed toward gaining an insight into this: How did higher spiritual powers break into earthly life? What came into earthly life from spheres outside of earthly life? If one wanted to express pictorially what lives in human souls, if one wanted to introduce it into art, then it could not be a matter of somehow directly imitate nature, paint true to nature, or engage in any other kind of artistic activity; rather, it was a matter of calling upon the powers in the human soul, including the powers of imagination, which are capable of making the supernatural sensually vivid, so to speak. And these powers of imagination were not so readily available to Western humanity that anything truly creative could have come out of it. In lectures I have given here, it has been shown that the Romans were an “unimaginative” people. And it was into this lack of imagination among the Romans that Christianity first spread from the East. But it came over, enriched not only by everything else it had absorbed from the Orient, but also by the imaginative life of the Orient, so that people associated more inner spiritual insights with what they had as Christian ideas.

In Greece, a view developed of how to depict the figures associated with the mystery of Golgotha and its effects. And this can best be seen in the depiction, in the development of the depiction, which concerns the person of the Savior himself, and in figures such as the Madonna and the related supernatural angelic worlds, the apostolic figures transported into the supernatural, the figures of saints, and so on. In all of this, one can best see how, as Christianity took root in the West, one might say, was seized by Roman unimaginativeness, which came across very imaginatively from the East. We know, of course, that in the early days of Christian representation, the figure of the Savior himself, the figure of Christ Jesus, and other figures associated with him were still imbued with Greek imagination. We have images that depict the savior himself in an almost Apollonian manner. We know how, in the first centuries of Christian development, a strange dispute arose as to whether the savior should be depicted as ugly, so that his inner spiritual life, the powerful events that took place there for humanity, would be expressed through his ugly features. This type of savior and similar types of other figures connected with the mystery of Golgotha developed more in Eastern Europe and Greece. In contrast, in the West, in Italy, the view was more that the figure of the savior and everything connected with it should be depicted beautifully. Strangely enough, however, this discussion extends into a time when, under the influence of Roman culture, the West had already lost the ability to depict beauty that it had been able to depict under the direct influence of Greek culture, when Greece had been conquered externally, but Roman culture had also been spiritually conquered by Greek culture, which then declined under unimaginative Roman culture. The ability to create beauty was lost in the following centuries.

And so it came to pass that what had been created by the imagination in order to express the new world impulses that had been fertilized by the Mystery of Golgotha came over from the East in the traditional manner. And so the artistry fertilized by Oriental imagination was transplanted artistically into Italy. This is how we must view the matter. And what these impulses had become by the time Dante was born, we see, after everything that came before had more or less disappeared, no longer existed, in a final manifestation that was already influenced by the West: in the creations that go by the name of Cimabue. Cimabue's paintings are murals and should be understood as such. They are paintings that show us the figures they depict in such a way that we see them as completely unnaturalistic, with more, I would say, emotionally conceived contours and spread out over large areas, conceived in terms of surface and thought through in terms of surface with very expressive painting, which, however, can no longer actually be seen today; even where Cimabue can be seen, it can no longer be seen, because most of Cimabue's paintings were painted later. The very liveliness in the coloration and the two-dimensional conception in the coloration are probably no longer visible at all. Therefore, Cimabue's paintings lose the least when they are presented as photographs. One can also recognize the complete character of these peculiar figures, depicted in more—as I said—emotionally conceived contours, which have something colossal about them, or at least are conceived as colossal, as having a colossal effect, and are conceived in such a way that one can say: they look into the earthly world from other worlds, rather than having sprung from the earthly world itself. Such are the images of the Madonna; such are the representations of the Savior himself, the saints, the angels, and the like, looking in on earthly life. We must make it absolutely clear to ourselves that what is painted there is rooted in an imagination that still had a visionary life in the background—a visionary life that was able to see that the impulses of Christianity came from a world foreign to the earth and that one does not want to depict this world foreign to the earth in a naturalistic way.

Now we will show a few pictures by Cimabue. Some of Cimabue's pictures can actually be seen in the church in Assisi, while others can be seen in Paris and Florence. We only have a few that we can show:

1-4 Cimabue Madonna with Angels and Prophets

Everywhere you look, you can see how the human eye, for example, is drawn in such a way that you can see: it is not copied, but characterized by a sensitive empathy with the forces that were believed to be involved in the organic imprinting of the eye. It is the inner activity of the eye that is empathized with and from which these things are formed; one might say it is thought of plastically and projected onto the surface in the mind. At the same time, there is always — one can still see it in these images — the concept that is much more prevalent in Oriental life than in the West, which was encountered in the following period, the concept of something from a distant world working in through power and wealth. When one allowed these images with their gold background to work on oneself at that time, one had above all the feeling that something powerful, something overwhelming to human beings, was coming in from a distant world; that what was happening on earth in the hustle and bustle of human activity was actually only there to be illuminated by the impulses emanating from an extraterrestrial reality, which was realized in this way.

3 Cimabue Madonna with Angels and Prophets

So the same picture as before, but before it was painted over. Another image of the Madonna:

4 Cimabue Madonna with Angels and Prophets, part of 1

And another image of the Madonna:

5 Duccio di Buoninsegna Madonna Rucellai 1At that time still attributed to Cimabue.

That is what we have from Cimabue. Now we move on to consider an artist who, in the course of external historical observation, is, in a sense, the successor to Cimabue:

9 Giotto The Adoration of St. Francis

There is also a legend that Cimabue found Giotto as a shepherd boy; that the shepherd boy, using primitive means, drew on stones in the field what he saw of animals and other creatures of nature, and that Cimabue discovered such significant talent in Giotto that he took him away from his father and trained him as a painter. Such legends are truer than the external historical truth. They show that Giotto, who followed Cimabue as one of the most important figures in the development of art, was naturally inspired in his inner artistic soul life by the whole world in which he was placed through what was created by those who are collectively known as Cimabue. But even if we have to imagine that, in a sense, the entire supernatural world everywhere had an effect on Giotto from the walls—none of which exists today for reasons we will discuss later—even if we imagine that this entire world, this world depicting the supernatural, had an effect on Giotto, we must never lose sight of the fact that with Giotto a completely new artistic worldview entered the Western world and that Giotto must be named the personality in the artistic field who, in the most eminent sense, shows the advent of the new fifth post-Atlantean era in the field of art. One could say that the fourth post-Atlantic epoch ends pictorially with Cimabue, and the fifth begins with Giotto. I will leave aside the question of whether everything attributed to Giotto by a very well-founded tradition was actually painted by Giotto himself; that is not important. However, much of what is painted in the same spirit as Giotto himself is united under the name of Giotto. I will therefore not go into this in the following, but will attribute to Giotto what tradition considers to be Giotto's work.

What is modern humanity living into at a time when Dante and Giotto personally clash? Modern humanity is living into what I always describe as the basic character of the fifth post-Atlantean period: into life within earthly-material reality. This should not be taken as a disparaging criticism of materialism, but one must be clear that humanity once had to settle into earthly reality, once had to say goodbye, so to speak, to looking up to a supernatural world, which still shows its reflection in Cimabue's paintings.

If we ask ourselves: Who was actually the first true materialist who gave materialism its very first impetus? – then, if we look at history from a somewhat higher perspective, we get an answer that will certainly sound paradoxical to people today, but which is fully justified from the point of view of a deeper understanding of human history; we get the answer that the first person to initiate material feeling in the soul was St. Francis of Assisi. It is indeed paradoxical to characterize Francis, the saint of Assisi, as the first great materialist. But that is how it is. One could say that the last views that still regarded the development of humanity from a supernatural perspective were presented to us in Dante's Divine Comedy, so that we must also regard Dante's Divine Comedy as the conclusion of views that were more directed toward the supernatural. In contrast, the view of the earthly, the empathy with the earthly, is already evident in Francis of Assisi, who was active before Dante. The spiritual always appears somewhat earlier than its expression in art. We therefore also see how the same thing that captured the artistic imagination of Giotto Giotto lived from around 1266 to 1337 — is captured in a later period, just as the same tendency, the impulse toward the spiritual, lives in an earlier period in Francis of Assisi. We see in Francis of Assisi a man who emerged completely from the external world, from that form of the external world that Roman culture gradually adopted under the most diverse influences. Francis of Assisi is initially completely focused on the external, enjoys external splendor and wealth, enjoys everything that makes life pleasant and increases personal well-being, but then his personal experiences cause a complete reversal in his spiritual life; it is initially a physical illness that turns him away from external life and focuses him entirely on the inner life. And then we see Francis of Assisi, a man who in his youth was completely focused on the external good life, on external splendor even, on external decorum — we see him turn to a feeling focused purely on the inner life of the soul. But it is so strange that Francis of Assisi is the first among the great figures who now turn their gaze completely away from everything that comes from the old visionary and imaginative life. Instead, he focuses his gaze on what walks directly on the earth, first and foremost on human beings. Francis of Assisi seeks to experience in human beings what can be experienced in the human soul, in the whole human being, when one looks at human beings as they are in themselves. Francis of Assisi is surrounded by world events which, I would say, have developed on earth in such a way that they have gone beyond the individual life of man – [similar] to the imagination that found expression in earlier art, allowing supernatural beings to look into human feelings. In his youth, and later on, Francis is surrounded by the world-historical conflict between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. One might say that in large spheres, there is a struggle for impulses that transcend what the individual human being feels and experiences, which people perceive only as a large, herd-like mass. And in the midst of this life, Francis of Assisi and his companions, who are becoming more and more numerous, assert the right of individual human individuality with all that can be experienced within the human being in terms of connections, in terms of feelings and experiences, with deeper powers that permeate, flash through, and radiate through every single human soul. The gaze is diverted from the cosmic-spiritual that surrounds them and directed toward the individual human being: compassion, empathy, sympathy, sharing the life of each individual human soul, taking an interest in what each individual human being experiences; disregarding status and wealth, which, so to speak, have interwoven themselves as a kind of glamour into what the Oriental imagination wanted to create in the field of art, which was allowed to shine in from the supernatural into the earthly - disregarding all that and looking at the sufferings and joys that poor human beings experience on earth! Each individual human being now becomes the main thing, each individual human being becomes a world of their own; and so one wants to live in such a way that each individual human being becomes a world. The eternal, the infinite, the immortal should arise in the human breast itself. It should no longer hover, as it were, as the encompassing sphere above the earth.

Cimabue's paintings are as if they were seen from the clouds, as if the figures were coming down from the clouds onto the earth. And that is how people had imagined the spiritual world, how they had felt it; and today we no longer have any idea how intensely people lived with this supernatural world. Therefore, as a rule, people have no particular idea of what a change in perception it was when Francis of Assisi asserted the inner life of the West. And in his soul, which wanted to live with what the poor man was, in the soul that wanted to feel the human being precisely in his poverty, when he was unburdened by anything, but also when nothing gave them value other than what they were as human beings, this Francis of Assisi, who wanted to feel for people, who also wanted to feel for Christ, as Christ is only for these poor people, this Francis of Assisi developed a wonderful feeling for nature out of the midst of Christianity, out of this felt Christianity. Everything becomes brothers and sisters to him on earth. And now a loving response develops not only to the human heart, not only to individual human beings, but to all creatures of nature. And in this relationship, Francis of Assisi is truly a realist, a naturalist. The birds are his brothers and sisters; the stars, the sun, the moon are his siblings; the little worm crawling across the earth is his sibling. He regards everything with loving concern. When he walks along the path, he picks up the little worm and moves it out of the way so that it will not be trampled. He admires the lark, considering it his sister. Francis of Assisi asserts an infinite inwardness, a life of thought that was unthinkable in earlier times. And in this, one can see much more of the characteristic nature of Francis of Assisi than in what is often written about his life from an external perspective.

Thus, one might say, he internalizes his view of the earthly, and thus he empathizes with humanity, and thus he gradually takes possession of artistic sensibility. Dante, in his great poem, places human life under the image of supernatural powers as a kind of final act. Giotto, his contemporary and probably also his friend, already paints with an immediate interest in what weaves and lives on earth. And so, in Giotto's paintings, we see the reproduction of the individual-natural, the reproduction of the individual-human. And it is no coincidence that the painting named after Giotto in the upper church in Assisi deals precisely with the life of Francis of Assisi, for there is a deep inner spiritual connection between Giotto and Francis of Assisi. Francis of Assisi, the religious genius who, out of his fervent spiritual life, asserts empathy with the becoming of the natural on earth, and Giotto, who first imitates how Francis of Assisi felt, how Francis of Assisi placed himself in the spirituality, in the soulfulness of the world.

And so we see that the current flows from Cimabue's rigid lines and two-dimensional thinking to Giotto, so that we see in Giotto a reproduction of the natural, the individual, the observed and reality, more and more standing within the space, not speaking out of the surface, in Giotto.

We will now let Giotto's paintings first affect our eyes, one after the other. It will become apparent how an understanding of the individual human form comes into play. And this understanding is all the more evident in Giotto's work because, as you will see, he depicts images from the legends of the saints and shows in these images how he attempts to convey the most inner, the most spiritual, in the outer expression. So now we will look at Giotto's paintings in sequence; these paintings are usually considered to be his earliest. You can still see the tradition of earlier times in them, but you can also see the human element entering everywhere, as he knew it, in the way I have just discussed:

Giotto

8 Madonna with Angels

10 The Presentation in the Temple

11 The Apparition of St. Francis

12 The Miracle of the Spring

13 Poverty

14 The Raising of the Youth of Suessa

15 The Lamentation of St. Francis by the Nuns

Thus, the entire life of Francis of Assisi is gradually painted by Giotto; and everywhere, I would say, Giotto's artistic sensibility is similar to that of Francis of Assisi himself; even if one takes the visionary aspect of these paintings into account, one sees everywhere that the aim is to paint this visionary aspect more from within, so that one sees the expression of human feelings more than in Cimabue, where it was always a matter of looking in from supernatural spheres. And nowhere do you see anything merely traditional in the faces, but rather you see that the person who painted them has already really looked at the faces.

16 Giotto The Death of St. Francis

Let us look at these last two pictures. The intimacy within them immediately reminds us of the beautiful fact, known from the life of Francis of Assisi, that he worked long and hard to compose his song to nature. In his song to nature, the great and beautiful hymn, Francis of Assisi speaks everywhere of his “brothers and sisters” — of Sister Sun, of the moon, of the other planets, of the creatures of the earth; everything he felt in loving, realistic devotion, in spiritual, realistic devotion to nature, is wonderfully brought together in this hymn. This immediate connection with earthly nature and with what lives in earthly nature is expressed particularly beautifully in one fact: that the last stanza was written only in the very last days of Francis of Assisi's life, and this last stanza is addressed to “Brother Death.” We see that Francis of Assisi could only sing of Brother Death at the moment when he himself was lying on his deathbed, at the moment when he asked his brothers to sing of the joys of death in his surroundings, where he felt himself ascending into the world into which he was to be received. The fact that Francis of Assisi could and wanted to express everything that connected him with the world directly from his realistic earthly life, from his present experience, is beautifully illustrated by the fact that, while he sang about everything else earlier, he only sang about death when he himself was close to death. The last thing he dictated is this final stanza of this great hymn to life, to Brother Death, in which the self-reliant man thinks of Christ as connected with human life. I believe there is no more beautiful way to see it—at the same time linked to the view of human life already radiating through Francis of Assisi, which had become completely different from what it had been in earlier times—than from such an image in which one sees, I would say immediately, how Giotto lives in the same aura of understanding as Francis of Assisi himself.

17 Giotto Joachim with the Shepherds

I have included this as a later image so that you can see how Giotto made tremendous progress in his later years. In this later period, you can see that he perceived humanity even more as individual human beings. In the period from which the images we have seen so far are taken, you can see how he is, I would say, carried by the impulse that also lived in Francis of Assisi. Now we see Giotto coming more into his own, speaking from himself in such an image, which belongs to a later period of his life. We will then return to images that follow on from the depictions of Francis of Assisi,

18 Giotto The Visitation

also from his later period. Realism has already penetrated much more deeply into his work in this later period.

19 Giotto The Marriage of Mary

21 Giotto The Baptism of Christ

Also from his later period:

23 Giotto Justice

24 Giotto Injustice

Such images show how natural it was at that time to express oneself in allegories. Living conditions have changed considerably over the centuries, and the great upheaval that has occurred as a result of the fact that the life of that time, which lived and unfolded in images, is now more a life of ideas that can be communicated through books—this upheaval is also a very great one, much greater than is actually appreciated today. And the need to express oneself allegorically was particularly characteristic of that time. And it is particularly interesting that these images so beautifully combine realism of representation with the need to make the representation something through which one reads the world.

22 Giotto Pope Innocent III confirms the rules of the order to St. Francis

Here we return to one of the depictions that, as they say, refers to Giotto's earlier art, which is taken entirely from his ever-deepening immersion in the emotional world of Francis of Assisi.

25 Giotto The Ascension of John the Evangelist

26 Giotto John the Evangelist on Patmos

This is a very beautiful illustration of how the artist wants to depict the inner life of John, who grasps his connection with the spiritual world from his mind. John is writing, or at least conceiving, the Apocalypse.

Giotto

27 The Raising of Lazarus 31 Noli me tangere

28 The Flight into Egypt 33 The Crowning with Thorns

29 The Annunciation to St. Anne 34 The Last Supper

30 The Visitation 8 Madonna with Angels

Immediately after this “Madonna” by Giotto, we will now show a picture that we have already seen, another “Madonna” by Cimabue, so that you can compare these two pictures and see what a colossal difference there is in the treatment of the figure. Compare how here (8) – even though tradition still has an effect in the gaze, in the eyes, in the mouth, in the conception of the baby Jesus – compare the realism that lies in this painting, where we see perfectly modeled people looking out from the earth into the world, compare that with the painting by Cimabue,

8a Cimabue Madonna with Angels and Prophets, Part 1

where we have something before us in which there is an original, visionary view translated into the traditional, where, in other words, a view from supernatural worlds is actually looking into our world. As much as the composition is reminiscent of Giotto's painting, you can see the enormous difference that exists in the overall lines.

37 Giotto The Last Judgment, part: Lower group of the blessed

38 Giotto Wrath

So again, one of the allegorical images.

39 Giotto The Lamentation of Christ

This painting is from the Arena Chapel in Padua, where Giotto returned to the earlier legend.

It is very interesting to compare this painting with the “Lamentation” we saw earlier. The older painting belongs to an early period in Giotto's work, while this one belongs to a very late period. Let's take another look at the older one so you can see the progress he made:

15 Giotto The Lamentation of St. Francis by the Nuns

This shows how he approached the same motif in terms of composition earlier and how he approached it much later. From a purely artistic point of view, it is, in a sense, the same picture painted again, but it is very interesting to see how much freer it is and how much more ability he has acquired in the later picture to respond to the individual details.

41 Giotto The Banquet of Herod

42 Giotto The Apparition of St. Francis in Arles

Another painting from the life of Francis, but in Florence, S. Croce. Giotto is back there again—we have already seen two paintings of this (16, 22)—returning to the legend of Francis.

47 Giotto The Naming of John the Baptist

43 Giotto (school) Church doctrine

Here and in the following picture we now have what is commonly called the “Giotto school.”

44-46 Andrea Buonaiuti (School of Giotto) The Church Regiment

Here you can already see the compositional element that would later play such an enormous role in painting, where a whole new inner life emerges, one might say. The difference can now be described in the following way:

If we were to go back to the development of Christianity up to Dante-Giotto, we would find that Christianity, as it is felt, as it is perceived, has Platonism in it, whereby I do not mean to mislead you into believing that it has Platonic philosophy in it, but Platonism, that is, a feeling and a view of the world as it has also been expressed in Platonic philosophy, where one looks into the supernatural sphere, but does not bring into this seeing what emanates from the human mind. In the period that followed Giotto, something theological — again, I am not saying the philosophy of Aristotle, but something theological-Aristotelian — where one tries to see the world in overviews, in a kind of system, as you see it ascending here in the picture: from a world below to a middle world, to a highest world. The whole of life is, in a sense, systematized in an Aristotelian way. And so the later Church conceived of human life as being placed within the entire world order. The times were thus over in which Cimabue still shone forth, where one had, so to speak, visionary views of a supernatural world. Then came the times of purely human feeling. Now people want to take purely human feeling – and now more systematically, I would say: more intellectually – up to the higher life, to connect with the higher life. The compositional element then takes the place of the earlier one, which created from the center. And so you see this three-stage process of ascending in the system to higher worlds from the world that one feels and experiences below. If you look at this in the descendants of Giotto, you will immediately have a premonition of what then appears in the later composition. For who could fail to recognize that the same spirit that reigns here (46) in the compositional aspect also confronts us, for example, in a more developed, more perfect form in the painting known as “Disputa” by Raphael!

In the “Church Regiment” from the school of Giotto, you can see once again how events and spiritual connections in earthly life are represented by the coexistence of people — the same idea emerges later in Raphael's painting, often referred to as “The School of Athens,” I mean purely artistically —: people are brought together to express connections that are valid in earthly life. When you look at this painting,

45 Andrea Buonaiuti (School of Giotto) The Church Regiment, part: group at bottom left

I ask you to pay particular attention to the fact that the basic idea is expressed in a unique way in this painting: in the background, the mighty church building; then, expressed in the painting, the power that emanates from the ecclesiastical dignitaries and pours out over the world of the people. Everywhere, if you look closely at the expressions on the faces in these paintings, you will find that the artistic element is placed at the service of this great idea of the church's rule shining out over the earth.

46 Andrea Buonaiuti (Giotto school) The Church Regime, part: middle group on the right

You can study every single face here, and you will find that it shows, as if radiating from a center, how wonderfully human beings participate in this impulse, which is to pass through all earthly souls from the Church Regime. The physiognomies are such that one can see: the whole thing was made by an artist who was imbued with this idea of the church government and who understood how to express in these faces what the church government brings into them. So we see the church government radiating again from the faces. I ask you to look at this very closely, because later we will see pictures that do not express the same thing at all, even though the compositional skill that comes from such a thought and is so beautifully expressed here in the arrangement and in the harmony of the arrangement with the expression, because later it turns into something completely different. Those who later find themselves in the same compositional direction retain the basic impulse of the composition, but, as you will see, a completely different element emerges.

You can see dogs at the bottom (45), can't you? These are the famous “Domini canes,” the “dogs of the Lord.” The Dominicans were called the “dogs of the Lord” in connection with their activities. Fra Angelico also depicted the “dogs of the Lord” in many of his paintings:

49 Masolino The Feast of Herod

This painting comes from the baptistery at Castiglione d'Olona.

Now we come a step further in the development. We can now say that the following development actually originated from the impulse built on the current of which Giotto is the great initiator. Now a double current emanates from this. We see more and more emancipation, one might say, of the realistic element in one current from the spiritual element. In Giotto's work, and also in the two paintings we saw last, the spiritual plays a role everywhere; for this impulse, which pervades the world as a church regiment, is indeed spiritual in nature, and the individual figures placed in the composition are conceived in such a way that one can say: Giotto lived, just as Francis of Assisi himself lived, in a spiritual world that was only realistically directed toward the earthly through the human soul; so too did Giotto and his disciples live, although they perceived the things of this world realistically in a loving way, within the spiritual and were able to unite the spiritual with the perception of the individual. Here we see, as we move into the 14th and 15th centuries, the desire to reproduce the individual and natural gradually emancipates itself, and the whole is no longer so strongly in focus, with the individual figures being taken from it, as is the case in all previous paintings, including those taken from biblical history by Giotto and his students. We see that the individual figure is detaching itself from this basic impulse, which has, as it were, cast a spell over the entire picture; we see all the people standing individually, even when they are composed together. And so, for example, we see the magnificent building here, and then how the artist is undoubtedly already striving not to place his figures within a basic idea, an artistic basic idea, but to paint the individual figures as individual human beings, to shape them as individual personalities; we see more and more individualities appearing, which are simply brought together; even though the composition certainly has something grand about it, we see how the individual emancipates itself naturalistically from the thinking that permeates the entire picture.

50 Masolino The Baptism of Christ

So even in such a biblical image, you can clearly see the emancipation of expression in the individual figures from the basic idea. Here, much more than in the earlier paintings, it is important to depict Christ in such a way that his human individuality is expressed through him, and the same applies to the other figures, much more so than in what we have seen before:

21 Giotto The Baptism of Christ

51 Filippino Lippi The Vision of St. Bernard

Here you can easily lose the sense of the whole that radiates throughout the painting. In contrast, here in Filippino Lippi's work you can see the physiognomies expressed in a wonderful way, both in the central figure himself—the visionary—and even in the secondary figures, where the human aspect comes to the fore everywhere. We see a current emanating from the foundation on which we have built, which works its way into realism and even brings such things to such wonderful inner perfection as Bernard himself, who receives this vision.

53 Masaccio The Tribute Coin

Here you can see the progression of human feeling in a very interesting way. When you look at this Masaccio, you will, I would say, be interested in each individual head grouped around Christ himself among the disciples of Christ. And see how Christ is now already individualized. Think of the tremendous progress in characterization that lies between the pictures we saw earlier and this one. But see also how the feeling that has now passed from the earlier feeling, which was completely absorbed in the Christian worldview, how the feeling has passed to the Roman, to the newly emerged Roman concept of power. Feel how in this composition, in the figures, in the expression of the individual figures, the Roman concept of power is expressed. Previously, you saw the church regime as something spiritual poured out over the image,

44-46 Andrea Buonaiuti (Giotto school) The church regime

now you see in this (53) mostly excellently individualized figures, people who want power and who unite to gain power, whereas before you saw something spiritual that shone through the faces like a flash of lightning. The individual could be understood from the whole. Here we can summarize the whole of life solely from what lies in perfection, one might say, in the inner unfolding of power in the individual human being. Despite the size of this composition, we see how the figures group themselves around the powerful Christ, who is indeed powerful through his spirituality, but how this is expressed in these people themselves: We are indeed in a realm that is not of this world, but which rules this world – through human beings, not through spirituality, but [even] through these human beings themselves. Thus we see how the human, the realistic, becomes more and more emancipated and how one becomes increasingly capable of representing the individual. For example, the legends of the saints are not portrayed for their own sake; rather, the legends of the saints live on, and they are used to portray human beings, building on these well-known stories as a foundation.

54 Masaccio The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise

Here you can already see that the focus is not on the great biblical narrative, but rather on the question: what do people who have experienced what Adam and Eve experienced look like? —- And this is answered in a magnificent artistic way — for the time, of course.

58 Domenico Ghirlandajo (?) Portrait of Francesco Sassetti and Son

I hardly need to say that with Ghirlandajo we are now in a period in which the ability to depict human beings as human beings, living through their purely human nature, has risen to a high level.

57 Domenico Ghirlandajo The Last Supper

We are approaching the time when the Last Supper is no longer depicted alone, as you could see in an earlier picture

34 Giotto The Last Supper

so that the gaze of the person looking at this Last Supper stirs within them what happened at this Last Supper, but the story of the Last Supper is taken to depict humanity. Even though this is not yet expressed here as it is in later paintings of the Last Supper, one can already begin to study the physiognomies of the individual disciples to see how humanity is affected by the impression made on the soul. A complete change in the entire artistic concept can be seen in such paintings.

48 Luca Signorelli The Sermon of the Antichrist

The same thing could be said about this painting as about the ones we have just seen.

59 Andrea Mantegna Madonna della Vittoria

The problem of the Madonna now becomes one where it can be said that the artist is much more concerned with the representation of the feminine in the Madonna than with the representation of the sacred fact. The legend of the saint lives on and, because it is something familiar, is used to solve realistic artistic questions and to individually shape the human aspect.

60 Andrea Mantegna St. Sebastian 61 Parnassus

Now, with these artists—which can be clearly seen in this painting—the human aspect becomes so strongly realistic that one no longer feels the need to use the legend of the saint. In Giotto's paintings, it is hard to imagine that anything unchristian plays a role. On the other hand, when the Christian legend took on the form of being, as it were, merely an opportunity to depict the human, the ability to emancipate this human element from the Christian legend itself began to emerge. And we can already see the growth of the Renaissance style, which emancipated itself from Christianity.

63 Fra Angelico The Descent from the Cross

Now, after we have wandered through a few images, so to speak, of the realistic direction, which depicts the individual perception of the human, the emancipation of the purely earthly-human from the supernatural sphere in a more spiritual way, we come to another movement, which has a great representative in Fra Angelico. In his work, we see what I would call a more spiritual movement. While what we have seen developing so far is more influenced by the spirit, in Fra Angelico we see the mind and the soul attempting to penetrate the human being. And it is interesting to see how this artist, in his wonderful, charming pictures, attempts to approach the perception of the individual in the same way from a completely different angle — in a much more soulful way. This is also evident in Fra Angelico's peculiar use of color, which cannot be reproduced here — everything is more soulful in his work, while the spirit, which recreates what is natural, is expressed in the other, more realistic movement.

soul, while the spirit of recreating nature is expressed in the other, in the realistic movement, which appears there as emancipation.

64 Fra Angelico The Crucifixion

In a sense, Fra Angelico now draws in the spiritual essence of Christianity via a detour through the soul. And that is precisely what is so interesting about Fra Angelico. We see that in earlier times a supersensible spirituality permeated the development of Christianity and also took hold of art; we then see how human beings are directed toward nature, directed toward it indirectly through the soul, and how the same impulses that lived only as religious enthusiasm in Francis of Assisi, how they first found expression in Giotto, but how vision is increasingly driven toward external naturalism, and how, in a sense, inner life now takes refuge in the soul in opposition to realism, which in turn works more toward a blurring of individuality, but works all the more toward expressing itself externally as soul; for the spiritual reigns and radiates from every detail in Fra Angelico's work. The spirituality of Christianity takes refuge in these images by Fra Angelico, which are so widespread — most beautifully, however, in the Dominican monastery of San Marco in Florence. We see that the spirit that reigns when viewing the supernatural poured itself into the viewing of the natural. The soul took refuge in this art form, which attempted to capture not so much the physiognomy imprinted on the expression, the spirit imprinted on the expression, as the spiritual that works through the expression.

65 Fra Angelico The Last Supper

If you remember the earlier “Last Supper” that we saw,

57 Domenico Ghirlandajo The Last Supper

where it really came down to answering the question: how does nature affect the spirit—how does the external nature of people shape what they experience during a particular event?—you can see how all the figures here are focused on one feeling, and yet how this one spiritual-individual aspect is expressed in the individual figures. Here (65), the soul lives in a spiritual way. In the earlier picture (57), spirit lived, expressed in a naturalistic way. Except for the lines, you can see it here (65); just look at the wonderful, gentle lines and compare them with the lines in the earlier “Last Supper”!

67 Fra Angelico The Coronation of Mary

What a magical touch of soulfulness is poured over this painting!

68-69 Fra Angelico The Last Judgment 70 Sandro Botticelli Portrait of a Young Girl

Now it is interesting that the same impulse found in Fra Angelico is carried over to Botticelli, albeit with completely different artistic intentions. In a certain sense, Botticelli is also a painter of the soul, but he emancipates the human from the religious overall soul feeling that Fra Angelico expresses, moving toward naturalism in the soul.

Compare such a head with that of Ghirlandajo, which we saw earlier,

58 Domenico Ghirlandajo (?) Portrait of Francesco Sassetti and Son

you will see how the spiritual is expressed in a naturalistic way—how here (70) there is an enormous amount of soulfulness, right down to the lines.

71 Sandro Botticelli The Adoration of the Magi

72 Sandro Botticelli The Lamentation of Christ

73 Sandro Botticelli Madonna with Angels, “Magnificat”

So now we have a series of Botticelli's works alongside Fra Angelico's, allowing us to appreciate the progress made in painting the soul in contrast to the spirit we found in Masaccio and Ghirlandajo. These are the two directions that followed the impulses that originated with Giotto and then, via Ghiberti and Donatello, crossed over into other areas to these painters.

And now, in the progression of development from these premises, we come to the great painters of the Renaissance, some of whose paintings we will allow to make an impression on us. When we have a painting like this one (70) in front of us, we see how, I would say that in this period from the 14th to the 15th century, then into the 16th century, there was an extraordinarily intense shift from the representation of the spiritual-contemplative, the spiritual-contemplative as a whole, to the human. In painters such as Ghirlandajo, we see the spiritual incorporated into nature, raised to a high level of expression; here (70) we see the soul expressed in a different current, even in the lines. We see, as it were, how in the course of time the knowledge of the human form, of human expression, is conquered by human beings, just as the earth is conquered from heaven in this time. We then see how, more and more, I would say, the deepening that has come about through the Christian principle recedes into the background, and how human beings should now be understood in a deeper way as such, by viewing the heavenly as a way to progress, to express the human inner life as it expresses itself, as it is imprinted on the human outer life and on what is connected to the human outer life in human coexistence. The conquest of the human in the most diverse ways — that is actually what we encounter here in such a wonderful way.

We then see the union of all this in the great artists, in Leonardo, in Michelangelo, in Raphael. We will now allow some of Leonardo's paintings to sink in, to see how he achieved a union, a synthesis of these various attempts that we encountered in the other paintings. A high degree of interaction between the spiritual and the soul now occurs in Leonardo, right down to the lines, the composition, and the expression.

87 Leonardo da Vinci, copy of Francesco Melzi caricatures (Venice)

The first picture is a sketch, a drawing by Leonardo, from which you can see how he strove to study the human being in a completely realistic way, but at a time when the artist was influenced by everything that had been achieved in earlier times. This is precisely what is characteristic of Leonardo, that he approaches human expressiveness in a radical way, so to speak. This is a characteristic image of how he seeks to capture the whole human being and tries to shape it, to bring it out in his drawing. He seeks to elevate himself to the highest level of expressiveness by capturing and studying human moods. All this has only become possible as the flowering of an artistic era that was preceded by the things we have considered: both the intellectual and spiritual penetration of human beings.

95 Leonardo da Vinci Madonna Litta

Leonardo's “Madonna Litta” in the Hermitage. And, as I said, you can see everything that was previously sought in separate ways united here.

100 Copy after Leonardo Apostle heads: Judas and Peter, cardboard

These are the heads of the apostles from the famous painting in Milan, The Last Supper, which is hardly visible today, of which only patches of color remain, and which shows how, especially in this great period of artistic development, the legends of the saints merely provided the basis for the depiction of human characters. We see this particularly in Leonardo's “The Last Supper.”

99 Leonardo da Vinci The Last Supper

studying the individual human characters; and we see him working on this wonderful painting for a long, long time, because he wanted to study the human characters in detail. We know that he often disappointed his clients, the ecclesiastical dignitaries, because, for example, he was unable to finish Judas after working on it for a long time; and when the abbot, the ecclesiastical dignitary, then urged him particularly to finish the painting, he said that he had not been able to finish it because he lacked a model for Judas; but when he looked at the abbot who was urging him, he said that he could sit for Judas—he would make an excellent model.

Copies after Leonardo da Vinci's “The Last Supper”: Heads of the Apostles (cardboard)

101 John 105 James the Younger

102 Thomas and James the Elder 106 Andrew

103 Philip 107 Matthew

104 Bartholomew

86 Leonardo da Vinci Self-portrait (Turin)

A “self-portrait” — at least that is how it is regarded.

118 Leonardo da Vinci St. Jerome

116 Leonardo da Vinci The Adoration of the Magi

74 Pietro Perugino The Crucifixion

Now we move on to the classical period itself. I ask you to look at this painting by Perugino, Raphael's teacher, and see how Raphael's art really grew out of that of his predecessors. In Perugino's work in particular, we see, once again, I would say, the emergence of a new element: a deep religiosity that now attempts to find its way into the composition and is combined with a certain architectural imagination, on which Raphael's greatness is often based.

75 Pietro Perugino “Lo Sposalizio”

75a Raphael “Lo Sposalizio”

If you look at the two paintings, you can see one formally growing out of the other, and you can see how Raphael achieves his greatness based on his teacher; you see how Raphael, by taking up the ripest fruit of the various currents we have become acquainted with, brings spirit and soul into his paintings and combines this with the compositional elements that came to him from his particular school.

78 Pietro Perugino The Vision of St. Bernard

You will remember that we have seen a “Vision of St. Bernard” before:

51 Filippino Lippi The Vision of St. Bernard

Consider the great difference between how here (78) the compositional aspect comes so prominently to the fore, while earlier (51) we saw an attempt to make the spirit effective in what is brought into the picture, what is given in the picture. Here (78) we see how the composition expresses what is underlying the image as a reproach, but cannot actually permeate the entire image. Perugino is not able to deepen the composition in such a way that the soul really comes out; but we see how the composition comes in particularly strongly in this current.

77 Pietro Perugino The Delivery of the Keys

So from this side, through which Raphael was influenced, we see the compositional element coming in. In Raphael, you will find that this compositional element plays a major role. We cannot speak of the compositional elements in the earlier compositions we have seen in the same way as we can here. The compositional element was there earlier as a consequence of a whole; the whole was perceived more as an organism. The human being is also composed, but although he is composed of a head, arms, legs, and so on, one cannot say that this is a composition. Rather, in the human being, everything emanates from a center, and the composition of the human being, consisting of arms and legs, head and torso, is perceived as a self-evident whole. Here in this picture, you do not perceive it as a self-evident whole, but you perceive precisely what has been composed. You find the earlier composition flowing much more from a unity. Here you see the whole assembled, so that it is truly composed.

So, starting in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, we see a movement that wants to conquer nature through the spirit, leading to a higher level of realism. We then see a movement that wants to conquer nature from the soul. And then we see this coming over from eastern Italy, from central and eastern Italy, where Raphael has his home and Raphael's predecessors, the compositional element that works from the individual to the whole, whereas all earlier movements still had an echo of working from the whole to the individual, which you could see particularly strongly in a composition like this one, which depicted the outflow of the spiritual church government into the world.

44 Andrea Buonaiuti (School of Giotto) The Ecclesiastical Regime

where everything is from a unity, where nothing is assembled from details as here (77).

220 Raphael Pope Julius I 221 Pope Leo X.

Now we see how the spiritual element finds its way into Raphael, into Raphael's soul, the achievement of the spiritual element as it becomes naturalism.

80 Francesco Traini The Triumph of Death

The image is included here so that you can see how the allegorical element has had a lasting effect. I have previously drawn attention to how the allegorical element intervenes in Giotto's work. This allegorical element continues to have an effect; and this is what remains, more or less, of the earlier, more spiritual conception. Something remains that is abstract allegory, found in particular in the paintings of the Camposanto in Pisa, which are magnificent in many respects. It belongs to an earlier time, but I wanted to show this allegorical element as something that continues to have an effect, even later. So that it lives on in people's feelings: the spiritual, spiritually naturalized, soulfully naturalized; no longer being able to grasp the whole, but rather the compositional; and the allegorical continues to have an effect. — Another allegory from this image from the Camposanto:

Francesco Traini: The Triumph of Death

84 Part: Merry Company

Part 81: Hunting Party

From the same painting:

Part 82: Group of Beggars

Part 83: Flying Demon

79 Francesco Traini St. Thomas Aquinas

Now you can see here how an aftereffect of the allegorical is initially present in this picture; for what was to be depicted was the effect of scholastic teaching; the effect of scholastic teaching on the one hand down to earth, to the overcoming of false beliefs, and on the other hand up to the heavenly regions, where that which lives on earth shines forth to the sacred processes. So we see what is effective on earth, what was effective in the spiritual substance of the earth, so to speak, expressed through an allegory that is now taken from reality itself. In this image, we see this allegorical element, which I mentioned last, taken as the starting point, but not in order to express allegory alone, but only in an allegorical way, something that was thought to be absolutely real, as it is presented.

So now we have tried to show how the various currents — I will repeat them once more: the spirit that strove toward naturalism; the soul, which in its expressiveness also became more and more realistic as people became increasingly able to express the soul in outward expression; the compositional, which in a sense brings together details in order to have a spiritual effect in the composition; and the allegorical — how these assert themselves as individual impulses. And in this way, what was then actually expressed in the great creations of Michelangelo and Raphael and their successors was built up. We can clearly see the spiritual passing through human beings in various ways and seeking to conquer the natural. We see how the spirit first strives to conquer that which is expressed in human beings through the human spirit, how through this, truly spiritual perception increasingly enters into the conception of nature. We then see how, in artists such as Fra Angelico and Botticelli, the soul enters; we then see how, in the period when composition was no longer taken for granted as something arising from vision, attempts were made to create, through the combination of individual compositional attempts, something through which the spirit could once again work, which indeed brought Raphael to such heights. We see how the desire to let world events speak led to allegory; how allegory in turn basically leads to realism, as you can see in this picture here (79), which then also – I ask you to think only of compositions such as the composition of “Saint Cecilia” in Bologna – became self-evident spirituality in Raphael:

196 Raphael St. Cecilia

In Traini's painting (79), we still see an attempt to place a main figure in such a way that the allegorical imposes itself, and in imposing the allegorical, an attempt is made to represent the inner life of man in connection with the whole world. In Raphael's “Saint Cecilia” (196), we see a main figure in the center, but everything has been taken so far that the allegorical element has been completely overcome, that the allegorical element has been erased, and people today can even argue about what Saint Cecilia is supposed to represent, even though they need only look it up in the calendar to see how this painting was made in reference to St. Cecilia's Day. then one would find how everything that Raphael created in this wonderful painting is contained in the legend of the saint, but how he had achieved such a powerful representation of nature, nature's ability to express the soul and the spirit, that one no longer even notices what allegory actually lies behind it. And that is the greatness of this period, which was dominated by Michelangelo and Raphael, that the earlier trends, from which one can see where their impulses originated, that these trends have been completely overcome, and that a truly pure, unbiased—for that time, pure, unbiased—viewing and reproduction of the reality surrounding us according to its natural material content, according to soul and spirit, had been achieved.

One can see in what this period, based on the processes studied today, has produced, one can see in these images, in these creations in particular, that such achievements must be preceded by developments that lead, starting from the spirit, to the recognition of the spirit in the outside world. One must first seek the spirit, then one finds the spirit in the outer world; one must first experience the soul, then one finds the soul in the outer world; one must first be able to experience soul and spirit together as such, then one also finds them in outer nature.

Therefore, we see how the spiritual, which was still at work in Cimabue, continued to have an effect in Giotto — how Giotto carries it out into nature in order to understand the form of nature through it. We see how, in turn, what Giotto radiates in terms of spirituality is used even more by his successors to understand the spirit of nature. We see how what came in through Francis of Assisi in terms of the soul, of grasping the soul in human beings, finds artistic expression at a certain level in Fra Angelico through Christian piety — how this in turn radiates out and grasps the essential in Botticelli. We see how, I would say out of a memory, an attempt is made to bring together the individual parts into a whole – from which many things have developed but which has been lost – so that the spirit that was lost on the way in direct observation can once again work in the whole, in order to be able to use it in one's work in grasping nature. One sees how the expression, how the allegory has been sought, but how this search has led to overcoming the allegory in nature itself, to finding the expression that mere observation, the unbiased observation of the outside world, gives to the one who sought it in the first place. Nature is allegorical, but nowhere does it allow the allegory to be immediately and intrusively recognized. Humans must often learn what can be read in nature by first learning to read it clumsily in a certain way. In an artist such as the one we see in the image of Traini (79), we still have a clumsy reading of nature. In Raphael's “Saint Cecilia” (196), we already see such an interpretation that there is nothing allegorical left in it, nothing of the straw that allegory has in general, which has not yet reached the full height of art.

I think that this lecture has enabled us to gain an insight into how the great artistic epoch of the Italian Renaissance gradually developed. I believe that people will continue to look back on this period and this artistic development because it allows us to look so deeply into this time, into the work and life of piety, wisdom, and love in the human soul with artistic imagination and with the desire to recreate nature impartially through artistic imagination. It is not in the mere imitation of nature, but in the ability of human beings to rediscover in nature what is already there as something akin to the innermost experience of the human soul, using what they have found in their own souls. I think that this could be expressed in today's presentations, albeit only in an episodic and imperfect way.